AP Environmental Science Study Outline.docx

AP Environmental Science Study OutlineKui Tang & Jiahang Zou(中文注解)August， 2008Renewed in March, 2011編者按：本文是08年本校某學長根據(jù) College Board 的 Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet by Botkin and Keller, 6th edition 所整理的提綱。原文為PDF，由于要增加注解注釋并補充review book 里的其他精髓，不得不用word進行編輯。在轉(zhuǎn)換格式過程中排版和拼寫均出現(xiàn)了很多問題，請各位指正。另外本文由于是ouline，所以在語法上有大量的省略.你懂的紅筆處表示有疑問。請諸位幫助解答。附：這種拼命翻譯查資料注解看書的事情真的不是人干的所以請腦子正常的孩子千萬不要模仿。OverThis guide follows the College Boards Topic Outline. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet by Botkin and Keller, 6th edition, was the main source for these notes.Contents1 Earth Systems and Resources 21.1 Earth Science Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 The Atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Global Water Resources and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.4 Soil and Soil Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 The Living World 82.1 Ecosystem Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.2 Energy Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.3 Ecosystem Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.4 Natural Ecosystem Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.5 Natural Biogeochemical Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Populations 143.1 Population Biology Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143.2 Human Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.1 Human Population Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.2 Population Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153.2.3 Impacts of Population Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Land and Water Use 164.1 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.1.1 Feeding a Growing Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164.1.2 Controlling Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.2 Forestry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184.3 Rangelands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4 Other Land Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.1 Urban Land Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194.4.2 Transportation Infrastructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214.4.3 Public and Federal Lands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4.4 Land Conservation Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.4.5 Sustainable Land-Use Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.5 Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224.6 Fishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254.7 Global Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265 Energy Resources and Consumption 265.1 Energy Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265.2 Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.2 Present Global Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275.2.3 Future Energy Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.3 Fossil Fuel Resources and Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285.4 Nuclear Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295.5 Hydroelectric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325.6 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335.7 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Pollution 366.1 Pollution Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.1.1 Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366.1.2 Noise Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416.1.3 Water Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426.1.4 Solid Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456.2 Impacts on the Environment and Human Health . . . . . . . . . 496.2.1 Hazards to Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496.2.2 Hazardous Chemicals in the Environment . . . . . . . . . 506.3 Economic Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 Global Change 527.1 Stratospheric Ozone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527.2 Global Warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547.3 Loss of Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577.3.1 Habitat loss; overuse; pollution; introduced species; endangered and extinct species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577.3.2 Maintenance Through Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . 587.3.3 Laws and Treaties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58頁碼不對了不用看了1 Earth Systems and Resources1. Average Residence Time (ART): ratio of size of reservoir(匯集地) to rate of transfer through reservoir:ART = S/FWhere S is size of reservoir and F is rate of transfer.以上是關于河流的停留問題1.1 Earth Science Concepts1. Lithosphere（巖石圈） is crust.2. Geological cycles include(a) Tectonic（板塊構(gòu)造）: can create ecological（生態(tài)） islands.i. Divergent plates boundaries（離散板塊邊界） occur at a spreading oceannridge （脊）(seafloor spreading).ii. Convergent plate（聚合板塊） boundaries occur when plates collide.（相撞）A. Subduction（俯沖板塊） is the heavy ocean rock diving beneath the light continental rock. May produce coastal mountain ranges (Andes安第斯山脈).B. Continental collisions（大陸碰撞） may produce continental mountains.iii. Transform fault（轉(zhuǎn)換斷層） boundaries occur when one plate slides（滑過）past another.(b) Hydrologic（水循環(huán)）(c) Rock(d) Biogeochemical（生物地球化學.）3. Earthquake occurs when tectonic plates （地殼構(gòu)造板塊）under pressure rupture, releasing huge amounts of energy (more than a large nuclear explosion), usually at 1015 km along faults（斷層）.(a) Fault planes（斷層面） bar groundwater. Rocks crushed, and then altered into clay. Water forced to surface, creating vital（維持生命所必需的） habitats, especially where arid（干旱的）.4. Volcanic eruption occurs when magma（巖漿） rises to the surface. Energy released varies broadly（寬廣的）. Volcanoes occur along tectonic plate boundaries, where active melting of rocks favors extrusion（噴出） of magma, or along central parts of plates where local hot spots heat and melt rock.5. Tsunami is a series of large waves produced after the vertical disturbance of ocean. 80% are produced by earthquakes. They travel at jet aircraft speeds but slow and get taller as they approach the surface.1.2 The Atmosphere1. Composition is 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% Ar, 0.03% CO2.2. Structure in order is: troposphere（對流層）, tropopause（對流頂層） (condensation traps water vapor), stratosphere （平流層）(O3), stratopause（平流層頂）, mesosphere（中間層）, mesopause（中間層頂）, thermosphere.（熱成層）1、對流層(troposphere)：高度地面到對流層頂溫度隨高度增加而降低鉛直混合強；氣象要素水平分布不均勻。溫度平均遞減率6.5K/km,最低-50-70度。集中了大氣質(zhì)量的3/4和幾乎全部水汽。主要天氣現(xiàn)象和過程都發(fā)生在這一層。當溫度平均遞減率2K/km的最低高度，規(guī)定為對流層頂層,其高度隨季節(jié)和緯度而變化。低緯1520km，極地和溫帶812km。2、平流層(stratosphere)：對流層頂?shù)?0km左右。溫度低層無變化，上部隨高度增加明顯增高。上界溫達0攝氏度，最高溫可達7攝氏度。幾乎無天氣現(xiàn)象，由于塵埃很少，大氣透明度很高。（臭氧）3、中間層(mesosphere)：平流層頂?shù)?085km。溫度隨高度增加降低，到層頂降到-90oC。是大氣最冷的部分。水汽極少，但高緯黃昏前后偶爾存在夜光云。強烈鉛直運動。4、暖層、熱成層(thermosphere)：中層頂?shù)?00km。溫度隨高度而增加。小于0.17m紫外線幾乎全被該層吸收。溫度達1000k以上。溫度日變化顯著，還受太陽活動影響。高緯度出現(xiàn)極光現(xiàn)象。5、 散逸層(ionosphere)：800km以上。3. 25% of incoming solar radiation rejected straight into space, 25% absorbed by atmosphere.4. Atmospheric circulation: (1) rotation and (2) differential heating.（差溫加熱）(a) Low pressure at equator, 5060度.(b) High pressure from descending air 2530度 arid. Sandwiched between two zones of high precipitation（降水量） (low pressure).(c) Easterlies（東風帶） at poles and Westerlies（西風帶） from 3060度 meet at 60度.(d) Trade winds blow to west; meet at equator, where doldrums（赤道無風帶） occur(Regions with little air movement).5. El Nio events (also ENSO) occur every 27 years, lasting for 1-1.5years.East-west trade winds weaken and eastern Pacific waters warm! Tropical rainfall shifts from Indonesia to South America. Floods in Peru; droughts and fires in Indonesia and Australia. Upwelling at South American coastline is suppressed. Natural.1ENSO，ElNino、南方濤動和LaNina定義(Definition of ENSO)：ENSO是厄爾尼諾(ElNino)和南方濤動（SouthernOscillation）的合稱，二者有非常好的相關關系。當赤道東太平洋表層水溫（SST）正距平，南方濤動指數(shù)往往是負。ENSO成為大尺度海氣相互作用以及氣候變化研究的中心課題。厄爾尼諾ElNino：圣誕前后，沿厄瓜多爾和秘魯沿岸，出現(xiàn)一弱的洋流，代替了通常對應的冷水。近年指一種更大尺度的海洋異?，F(xiàn)象，整個赤道東太平洋表現(xiàn)振幅達幾攝氏度的增暖。與此相聯(lián)系，海洋和大氣環(huán)流發(fā)生很大的異常。(a) La Nia opposite; exaggerate normal patterns.6. Tornadoes are funnel-shaped clouds of rapidly rotating wind. They form out of severe （嚴重的）thunderstorms that occur when a cold air mass collides（相撞） with a warm one. Water vapor in the warm part is forced upwards, cools, then precipitates（沉淀，下降）.7. Hurricanes are tropical storm with circulating winds of at least 120 km/h that moves across tropical ocean.(a) An organized mass of thunderstorms with low pressure begin to circulate, forming a tropical depression.(b) Huge amounts of energy are stored as latent（潛伏的）heat-vaporization. Condensation （液化）releases this energy, warming air. As this air rises, more water is drawn, increasing the size of the hurricane.(c) Rain bands form as the warm air rises.(d) Nearing landfall, hurricanes may slow down in shallower water, but warm water increases intensity.(e) Storm surges（風暴潮） occur when the hurricane winds push water towards the coast, which may rise to be over 10 m and may be exacerbated（惡化） by high tide.8. Heat waves are extended（延長的） periods of unusually hot weather caused by heating of atmosphere and moving of air masses. They are considered most deadly of all weather-related hazards. Global warming may have increased their severity and incidence.9. Droughts are long-term (months to years) periods of usually dry weatherthat are related to natural cycles of wet and dry years, which in turn arenot well understood.10 Coriolis effect （科里奧效應）is apparent（明顯的） deflection（偏轉(zhuǎn)） of moving objects when viewed from a rotating frame（構(gòu)架） of reference.從熱帶向北流動的一陣風或一般海流，起初隨著地球的 旋轉(zhuǎn)，從西向東轉(zhuǎn)動得非?？臁．斔虮绷鲃訒r，它保持著 它的速度，而地表的運動速度卻越來越小。因此，風或海流 就會超過地表，并且越來越向東沿著曲線前進。最后，風或 海流就在北半球順時針方向劃一個大圓圈，而在南半球則反 時針方向劃一個大圓圈。 正是這種造成曲線運動的科里奧利效應，在更加集中 （因而更加有力）時，就會形成颶風，如果還要更加集中和 更加有力，就會形成龍卷風。 科里奧利力（Coriolis force)，是地球自轉(zhuǎn)偏向力，指的是由于地球沿著其傾斜的主軸自西向東旋轉(zhuǎn)而產(chǎn)生的偏向力，使得在北半球所有移動的物體包括氣團等向右偏斜，而南半球的所有移動物體向左偏斜的現(xiàn)象。(a) Free objects on surface appear to go right in Northern hemisphereand left in southern.(b) Air and water flows right in north, left in south.(c) Responsible for cyclones.（氣旋，颶風）1.3 Global Water Resources and Use1. Groundwater is water below the water table（地下水面）, which is saturated（飽和的，被充滿的）. 20%.(a) Surface water enters at recharge and exit at discharge zones.(b) Vadose（滲流的） zone is unsaturated area above water table where water moves.(c) Aquifer（地下蓄水層，砂石含水層） is underground zone where water can be extracted at a useful rate. Gravel（沙礫） or sand.(d) Cone of depression occurs where well is: water level is locally lower (e) Effluent（流出的） streams maintain flow during dry weather by groundwater seepage（滲，流） (they are below water table). Most perennial streams are effluent.(f) Influent（流入的） streams are entirely above water table; flows only in response to precipitation（降水）. Called ephemeral stream（季節(jié)性河流）.(g) Reaches（河段） are sections of a stream that may be effluent, influent, or intermediate.(h) Though reserves are huge (conservatively 200 years of Mississippi flow), pumping costs limit amount that can be economically recovered.i. Overdraft（透支） occurs when withdrawal rate natural inflow（流入量）.ii. Essentially（本質(zhì)上） nonrenewable（不可恢復的） because it can （箭頭） damage ecosystems, land subsidence（下沉）.iii. Texas-Oklahoma-High Plains area (Ogallala（奧加拉拉） aquifer（地下蓄水層）): prime example. Used 20 times faster than being renewed.2. Surface and ground-water related:(a) Use groundwater 箭頭 decrease surface levels(b) Divert（轉(zhuǎn)移） surface water 箭頭 decrease ground levels and quality OR increase pollutants（表面積） if divert to recharge zone. Pollution interrelated（相互關聯(lián)） too3. Ocean circulation(a) “Oceanic conveyor（傳送者） belt”: (Gulf Stream) water 1213 C arrives at Greenland. Cooled and became more saline（含鹽） in North America (24 C), sinks to bottom. Flows south, east, north into Pacific. Up-welling starts warm shallow（淺的） current. Keeps N. Europe 510 C cooler. (b) Forces include: rotation, wind, temperature and salinity differences, gravity of moon.4. Only 50% of precipitation is considered available 95% of the time.5. Desalination（脫鹽作用） will remain expensive because it has place value: it is very expensive to transport water. (a) Discharge of brine waste may damage ecosystems.6. Stream usage(a) Off-stream use is removal and return (power plant).(b) Consumptive（消費性） use is not returned (drinking, irrigation（灌溉）).(c) In-stream use uses the stream itself or modifies(更改 it. Each use requires different rates of discharge（釋放，流出） that cannot be met simultaneously（同時的）.i. Hydroelectric（水力發(fā)電） power prefers large fluctuations(起伏現(xiàn)象). ii. Fish and wildlife prefer larger flows in spring and summer, as does recreation.iii. Navigation prefers constant flow.(d) Aral（堿海） Sea demonstrates that removing too much water is deleterious（有害的） to ecosystems. The sea area has been reduced by 40%, volume by 50%. Economically important fish are dying, and fishing towns bordering the sea are now inland. Restoration just beginning.7. Industrial and domestic use (U.S.)(a) Agriculture, industry began leveling off around 1980. Suggests conservation（保護性） working.(b) Water for public supply continues to increase.8. Conservation expects to reduce total withdrawals yet allow consumption to increase.(a) Agriculture can reduce 2030%:i. Dont subsidize（補貼） water.ii. Integrate（融入） surface and groundwater use: use store surface water (infiltration（滲透） pool or injection well) when abundant, groundwater when not.iii. Use high-tech to maximize delivery efficiency. Irrigate（灌溉） when evaporation is minimal. Use improved irrigation (drip).iv. Improve soil: 增加 infiltration（滲透）, 減少runoff（溢流）.v. Use crops that require less water or are more salt-tolerant（耐鹽的）.(b) Domestic use is only 10%, but concentrated in urban. i. Dont do lawns（草坪） in semi-arid regions!ii. Use efficient bathroom fixtures. 1.6 gpf instead of 5.0.iii. Utilities should price water based on non-linear curve to encourage consumption.(c) Industry can reduce electricity generating water 25_30% by using low water/no water evaporation tower, in-plant water reuse.(d) Perception impacts peoples attitudes toward water conservation.i. Tucson（大名鼎鼎的死人的圖森.）: people think its desert; conserve. Water expensive. For example, price per unit increases if usage increases past baseline.ii. Phoenix: water cheap; people dont bother conserving.9. In wet years, plenty of surface water, and groundwater is recharged. Dry years, need emergency plans to minimize hardship:(a) Plan to drill and connect wells for deep groundwater, even though too expensive to normally use.(b) Prepare to treat waste water for reuse when needed.1.4 Soil and Soil Dynamics1. Rock Cycle(a) Igneous rock（火成石） forms from lava. Cracking, weathering split.(b) Sedimentary rock（水成石） forms from pressure of lots of sediment: deposition（沉積） + lithification（巖化）.i. Weathered rock.ii. Carbon sediments by life.(c) Metamorphic rock（變質(zhì)巖） forms from sedimentary rocks transformed through heat, pressure, or chemicals. May be uplifted into open.2. Soils are earth materials modified by physical, geological, and biological processes into horizons:(a) O: black organic layer. Decomposing（分解） stuff.(b) White powderbleached of organic compounds.(c) A: mineral and organic. Brown/light-black. Minerals leach here.(d) E: lighter-colored because clay, minerals leached.(e) B: zone of accumulation（堆積） (of leached（過濾） stuff above).(f) C: parent materialpartially weathered bedrock（基巖）.2. Rainwater (pH = 5.5) leaches minerals.4. Soil fertility（肥力）(a) Young rocks fertile: corn belt（大農(nóng)業(yè)地帶） (recent glacier).(b) Semiarid（半干旱） regions fertile; need water.(c) Humid areas/tropics infertile（貧瘠的）: leaching due to rainfall. Most nutrients in vegetation. Succession difficult if forest cleared.5. Semiarid soils expand and contract（與.有關） with water. Damage buildings.6. Clay holds water. Sand allows water to drain（流盡）. Combination retains water enough for growth but still drains. Coarse soils（粗制土） more easily eroded（缺刻狀的）.7. Loams（壤土） are best soils; have all particle sizes.8. Landslides（滑坡） occur when driving forces (gravity) that tend to move soil and things in the soil down a slope overcome resisting forces that hold the ground in place (interlocking（聯(lián)鎖的） grains, natural cementing（粘合物）, plant roots, strength of materials on slope). Addition of water or removal of vegetation reduces resisting forces. Some landslides are reactivations（再生） of prehistoric（史前的） slides ; these areas repeatedly experience landslides (see La Conchita). (a) In mountains, create lakes by damming valleys.9. Floodplain（泛濫平原） is river and flatland draining（排泄） into it. Naturally, floods annually.(a) Deposit（放置） nutrients on floodplain.(b) Wetlands provide habitat.(c) Floodplain is distinct from adjacent（鄰近的） environments 箭頭 diversity.2 The Living World2.1 Ecosystem Structure1. Ecosystem is the simplest entity（實體） that can sustain（支撐） life. Support chemical cycling and energy flow.2. Habitat is where a species lives; niche（小生態(tài)環(huán)境） is what it does.(a) Conservation（環(huán)境保護） requires paying attention to both, as well as obligate symbionts（考性共生物）.(b) Predation（捕食） can increase diversity by mitigating（減輕） competitive exclusion（排他性）.3. Watershed（分水嶺） definition of ecosystem: delineated（描繪） by land that drains intosame stream.4. Comm