語言文化論文-從合作原則看英語委婉語的使用.doc

語言文化論文-從合作原則看英語委婉語的使用AbstractTheword“euphemism”comesfromtheGreek,eu-means“good”,andpheme-,“speech”or“saying”,andtogetheritmeansliterally“tospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner”.Euphemism,asaculturalphenomenonaswellasalinguisticconcept,hasattractedpeoplesattentionforalongtime.Ithaslongbeenatopicofmuchinterest.Generallyspeaking,peoplewouldusemoreeuphemismsincommunicatingwiththeoppositesex；womenwouldusemorethanmenwould；olderpeoplewouldusemorethanyoungergenerations.Peoplewouldmoreuseeuphemismsinpowerrelationsthanincloserelations.Peoplewithhighereducationwouldusemoreeuphemisms.Theabovefactors:age,sex,socialstatus,education,etc.donotworkseparately.Incommunicating,theyareinterlacedwitheachotherandguideourchoiceofeuphemisms.Whethertouseeuphemismsortaboowordsalsodepends,toalargeextent,ontheattitudesofparticipants(particularlyspeakers)andthepurposeofconversations.Thearticleconsistsofsixparts.Partoneexplainswhatthemeaningofeuphemismis.ParttwoissayingtheCooperativePrincipleinbriefly.CooperativePrinciple,thecornerstonetheoryofpragmatics,isoneofthemainprinciplesthatguidepeoplescommunication.TheCooperativePrincipleanditsmaximscanexplainwhattheliteralmeaningisanditsrealintentionincommunicationandensurethatinanexchangeofconversation.Partthreepresents,theformationeuphemism,namely,formalinnovation,semanticinnovation,rhetoricaldevices,andgrammaticalways.Partfourdiscussesthecommunicativefunctionofeuphemismissubstitution,politeness,disguise,defense,etc.Partfiveservesasthemainbodyofthisarticle.Generallyspeaking,euphemismsviolatetheQuality,QuantityandMannerMaximoftheCPduetodifferentreasonslikesubstitution,disguiseetc.AndbasicallyeuphemismsobservetheRelationMaxim.Fromtheanalysis,itcanbealsofoundthatsometimesaneuphemismcanberegardedasviolationoftwomaximsoftheCPatthesametime.Partsixconcludesthewholearticle.KeyWordsCooperativePrinciple；Euphemism；Communicativefunction【摘要】委婉語(euphemism)一詞起源于希臘語。Eu意思是“好的”，pheme意思是“話語”，因此字面上的意思是說好聽的話或用禮貌的方式說話。委婉語是一個語言學概念，同時也是一種文化現(xiàn)象，長久以來一直受到人們的關(guān)注?？傮w上講人們在與異性進行言語交際時，要比在同性面前更多地使用委婉語，女性要比男性更多地使用委婉語，年長的人要比年青的人更多地使用委婉語。人們在“權(quán)勢關(guān)系”的語境中往往要比在“親密關(guān)系”的語境中更多地使用委婉語。受教育程度越高的人，越注意自己的言談，因而更多地使用委婉語。上述因素年齡、性別、社會地位、教育等并不孤立存在，在交際中，他們交織在一起決定著委婉語的使用。是否使用委婉語還要考慮說話者的態(tài)度和交談的目的。文章由六個部分組成。第一部分解釋了什么是委婉語。第二部分簡單列出合作原則的各項原則。它作為語用學的理論基石之一，是指導人們語言交際的原則之一。它可以很好地解釋話語的字面意義和實際意義的關(guān)系，這對于交際委婉語顯得尤為重要。第三部分說明委婉語的構(gòu)成可以有很多種方式：形式變化，語義變化，修辭手段和語法手段。第四部分闡述了交際委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等功能。第五部分是文章的主體，并說明委婉語出于替代、掩飾、和禮貌等原因主要違反了合作原則中的質(zhì)、量和方式三個次則，基本上是遵循了合作原則中的相關(guān)原則。第六部分總結(jié)全文?！娟P(guān)鍵字】合作原則；委婉語；交際功能1.IntroductionIntheOxfordAdvancedLearnersEnglishChineseDictionarytheexplanationofEuphemismis(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mildorindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones1.AndintheLongmanDictionaryofContemporaryEnglishtheexplanationofEuphemismis(anexampleof)theuseofapleasanter,lessdirectnameforsomethingthoughttobeunpleasant2.Forexample,themanwhowantstoustocallhima“sanitationengineer”insteadofa“garbageman”ishopingwewilltreathimwithmorerespectthanwepresentlydo.ThewordeuphemismcomesfromtheGreekeumeaninggoodandphememeaningspeechorsaying,andthusmeansliterallytospeakwithgoodwordsorinapleasantmanner3.Euphemismshavevariousreasonsforexistence.Theyconcealthethingspeoplefearthemostdeath,thedead,thesupernatural.Theycoverupthefactsoflifeofsexandreproductionandexcretionwhichinevitablyremindeventhemostrefinedpeoplethattheyaremadeofclay,orworse.Theyarebelovedbyindividualsandinstitutions(governments,especially)thatareanxioustopresentonlythehandsomestpossibleimagesofthemselvestotheworld.Andtheyareimbeddedsodeeplyinourlanguagethatfewofus,eventhosewhopridethemselvesonbeingplainspoken,evergetthroughadaywithoutusingthem.ButsomepeoplestillmistaketheeuphemismsintheconversationbytheCooperativeprinciple.ViolatingtheCP,peoplealsocancontinuetheconversationwitheuphemisms,whichmaketheauthorinterestinattitudesofparticipantsandthepurposeofconversation.Thatisourbodytoday.2.Formationofeuphemisms2.1FormalinnovationToavoidtheemergenceofcertainletterorsoundmayachievetheeffectofeuphemizing.Theformalinnovationcanhideaudio-visuallythosewordswedontwanttosayorweshouldntsaysoastoachievebetteroutcomeincommunication.2.1.1AbbreviationAbbreviationistheshorteningofawordandmaybeseenintheuseoftheBritishexpressionLADIESforladiesroom.TherealsoisGENTSforgentlemensroom.2.1.2ApocopationApocopationisanotherformofabbreviationapparentintheuseofvampforvampireheremeaningaseductivewoman.Andlavisforlavatory；homoisforhomosexual；cocaisforcocaine；braisforbrassiere.2.1.3InitialingInitialingistheuseofacronymsinsteadoftheircomponentpartsasinJCfor“JesusChrist”,BMforbowelmovement4,W.Cforwatercloset,B.Oforbodyodor,V.Dforvenerealdisease,AIDSforacquiredimmunedeficiencysyndrome,SARSforsevereacuterespiratorysyndromeBackformingBackformingisthesubstitutionforonepartofspeech(usedinshortenedform)foranother,asinburgle(rob)whichisderivedfromburglarReduplicationReduplicationistherepetitionofasyllableorletterofaword.Particularlycommoninchildrensbathroomvocabulary,itsubstitutespee-peeforpiss,poo-pooforbowelmovementBlendwordAblendwordisaformofphoneticdistortioninwhichtwoormorewordsaresqueezedtogetherbothorthographicallyandphonetically.Anexampleofthisisgezundaforachamberpot,atermderivedfromthefactthatthisobjectgoesunderthebedDiminutiveAdiminutiveistheformationofanewtermbynickingorshorteninganameandaddingasuffixindicatingaffectionorsmallness.Heinie,forexample,isthediminutiveofhindendandreferstothebuttocks9.2.2Semanticinnovation2.2.1BorrowingMostobviously,euphemismsmaybeformedbyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguagestermsthatarelessfreightedwithnegativeassociations.Thus,weuseGreekandLatinexpressionsformanybodilypartsandfunctions.Wehavecoinedhalitosis(badbreath)fromtheLatin(halitus)for“breath”andwehavesubstitutedmicturitionforthemorevulgarIndo-European“Piss”.Inaddition,Englisheuphemismsalsoborrowedalotofscientificoracademicterms,whicharebelievedtobemoreeuphemisticandobjectivethantheusualterms,suchasmagneticfor“sexy”andperspirefor“sweat”andsoon.2.2.2WideningEuphemismsmaybemadebyasemanticprocesscalledwidening.Whenaspecifictermbecomestoopainfulorvivid,wemoveupintheladderofabstraction.Inthisway,cancerbecomesgrowthandagirdlebecomesafoundation.Sometimes,inadditiontowideningwedividethenegativeconnotationsofasingledirecttermbetweentwoormorewords.Insteadofsaying“syphilis”openly,wespeakofasocialdisease.2.2.3SemanticshiftAlliedtothephenomenonofwideningisthatofsemanticshift.Thisisthesubstitutionofthewhole,orasimilargenerality,forthespecificpartwedonotchoosetodiscuss.Wemaycreatesuchmetonymies(substitutionsofthewholeforthepart)asrearendfor“buttocks”.Sometimes,asintheexpressionstosleepwith/gotobedwithsomeone10,weusewordsnamingthelargereventinplaceofmoreprecisereferencestothesexualrelationsthatarepartoftheprocess.2.3Rhetoricaldevices2.3.1MetaphorEuphemismsmaybemadebyaprocesscalledmetaphoricaltransfer,thecomparisonofthingsofonekindtothingsofanother.Theeuphemismschosenareoftenromanticizing,poeticizingandsofteningoftheoriginalwordslikegotosleep；gotohislonghome；behomeandfree；restinpeace；beatrest；gotoHeaven/Paradise；joinonesancestors；begatheredtoonesfathers；jointheimmoralsfordie11,shockforrandombombing,constructivedestructionforseveredamage,havearoadtotravelforhavealongtimetoreachanagreementandetc.2.3.2AposiopesisInEnglish,thereisakindofrhetoriccalledaposiopesisthatcanalsoactasthewayofeuphemizing.Whenwethinkweshouldnotsaysomethingundercertainconditions,wesuddenlystopaswhenwesaysomeoneisout(ofwork)；sheisexpecting(ababy)；totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy)；todepart(fromthisworld)122.3.3AnalogyAnalogycanoftenbeseeninthevocabulariesofwork.Atendencytoelevatemenialorunskilledjobssometimessubstitutingagrandtitleforalargesalarycanmakeoffalsmelllikearosebypromotinggarbagementosanitationengineersoreventowaste-reductionmanagers.Byimplication,theybecomehighlytrainedtechniciansandexecutives.Health-clubstaffsbecomefitnesscoordinators,andsenatorsnowhavetheirshoesshinedbythefootwearmaintenanceengineer,formerlytheSenatebootblack.Evenifyouarenotagovernmentofficial,yourjanitorisnowyourbuidingmaintenanceengineer.2.3.4UnderstatementUnderstatementdisplayspeoplesdesiretomaketheirlanguagelesspainfulanddirect.Sothereisneveranuglywomaninthisworld,sheisatleastplain.Teachersonlytellparentsthattheirchildisabitslowforhisage,notretarded.Andcallseniorcitizenforoldperson.Takeothersthingswithoutpermissioncanbeinsteadofsteal.2.3.5PeriphrasisPeriphrasisisjustbeatingaroundthebush.Peopleoftensayeuphemismsareweaselwords,becausepeoplenevercallaspadeaspadewhenusingeuphemisms.Fartisnotpleasanttoear,sopeoplecallitwindfromthebehind.Someonewantsyoutogoaway,butheonlysayshewillcallyourcarriageforyou.Someonelivingatthegovernmentexpensemaymakeyouenvyhim,butactuallyheisinprison.ManysayingsaboutgoingtoWCmakeagooduseofperiphrasislikewashoneshands,powderonesnose,spendapenny.Sodothedropforadjustmentdownward132.4.GrammaticalwaysAccordingtoBolinger,Euphemismisnotrestrictedtothelexicon.Therearegrammaticalwaysoftoningsomethingdown”.Therefore,euphemizingshouldnotbelimitedtolexicalways；itcanalsobeachievedbygrammaticalways.2.4.1TenseInEnglish,tensecanlendalittleeuphemisticcolortotheexpressionsforsomethingundesired.Especiallywhenpeopleusewant,hope,thinkandwonderorwordslikethattheymayalsomakeuseofthetensetosoundmoreeuphemistically.Forexample,Iwonderedifyouwouldmindhelpingme?orIwonderedifyoucouldhelpme?14.Askinghelpthisway,peoplewontfeelsoembarrassediftheywererefused.2.4.2SyntacticalnegationThismethodcanlessonthepainfulimpactofthelanguagethatisnotwelcomed.Wesaysheisnotpretty(Actuallysheisveryugly),butthatisacceptable,becausenotprettydoesnotequalto“ugly”,itcouldbe“plain”too.Notprettyhasawiderrangeofmeaningthanugly.Similarusagesareasthefollowing:Idontthink,Iamafraid,Iamnotsure,Idontlike,etc.2.4.3FirstpersonalpronounsTheuseoffirstpersonalpronounslikewe,ours,us,etc,canalsomakeourspeechessoundmoreeuphemistic.Youwouldfeelmorewelcomedifyouusedweorourquiteoften.Ifadoctorsaidtoyouhowdowefeeltoday,youwouldfeelverywarmandcomfortable,becauseitmakesyouthinkthatthiskinddoctortakesyourillnessasmutualconcern.3CommunicativefunctionsofeuphemismsLanguageisforcommunication,whereaseuphemismsmayleadtobettercommunication.Usingeuphemismscanavoidbeingpresumptuousinlanguagecommunication.Whenwehavetotouchsometopicsthatareunpleasant,wetendtochoosemoreeuphemisticexpressionstorefertothosepainfultopicssoasnottohurtthehearersfeeling.WecanfindthetheoreticalfoundationforthismotivationinLeechsPolitenessPrinciple.Euphemismsjustminimizetheimpolitenessandmaximizethepolitenessincommunication.ThefunctionsofeuphemismsareinagreementwiththoseofPolitenessPrincipletoo,astheybothoffermorebenefittothehearerandleavemorecosttothespeaker,withthepurposethatbothofthetwosideswillfeelrespectedandhavefavorableimpressionofeachother.Aspolitenessisusuallyregardedasthemanifestationofhumancivilization,euphemismisoneofthemosteffectivestrategiestodisplaypolitenesswhilemodulatinginterpersonalrelationshipinhumancommunication.3.1SubstitutionAccordingtothedefinitionsofeuphemismandweknowthatagreatnumberofEnglisheuphemismsserveasthesubstitutionsforverbaltaboos.Thetermtaboo(tameaning“mark”,boomeaning“exceedingly”)ofPolynesianorigindenotesanythinglinguisticandnonlinguistic,whichisprohibitedorforbidden.Tabooreferstothesituationinwhichawordornamecanbeusedinacommunityonlyunderspecialconditions,whetheronlybycertainpersonsoronlyincertaincircumstances.Justasviolatingaculturaltaboocanbequiteoffensive,soisitwithaverbaltabooinpressconferences.The“word”hasbeenandcontinuestobeinmostsocietiesperceivedasapowerfulinstrumentthatmayevokeevilspirits,makebadthingshappenandinstigatetoviolenceandrevolutionandnumerousotheractivities.Whiletabooofwordsoccurswhenaparticulartopicisconsideredvalidfordiscussion,euphemisticexpressionortermsarerequired.Sodiplomaticeuphemismshaveaveryseriousreasonforbeing.Theycanconcealthethingspeoplefearmostdeath,thedeadorthesupernatural.Euphemismscanalsoeliminateunhappiness,embarrassmentandfearetc.soastorelievepeoplepsychologically.3.2PolitenessPolitenessisanotherveryimportantfunctionthateuphemismsserveinsociallife.Someoftheeuphemismsareusedtoavoidcrudenessandindecencyforthesakeofapoliteconversation.15GriceformulatedCooperativePrincipleofutteranceinwhichtheMaximofMannerwasdefinedas“Beperspicuousandspecific；Toavoidobscurity；Toavoidambiguity；Tobebriefandtobeorderly.”TheroundaboutnatureofeuphemismsgoesagainsttheMaximofManner,whichcanonlybefairlyexplainedwellbyLeechsPolitenessPrinciple“ApprobationMaxim:minimizedispraiseofother,maximizepraiseofother”.Inotherwords,euphemismsaretominimizeimpoliteexpressionsandmaximizepoliteexpressions.3.3DisguiseBesidesthetwofunctionsofeuphemismsmentionedabove,thereisstillanotheronemoreimportantfunctionatworkineuphemisticcommunication,namely,theDisguiseFunction.Herewemeanthatbecauseofthevaguenessofeuphemisms,ithasbecomeaveryimportanttoolforpoliticalleadersorthediplomatsorstatesmentodistortthefactsorandpresentafalsepictureofpeaceandprosperityandtobeautifywhatevertheauthorityhavedone.Forexample,intheIraqWar,theyuse“OperationIraqiFreedom”forbeautifyingtheirmilitaryinvasion,“possiblemovement”referstomilitaryattack,“airoperation”or“airstrikes”forairattack,“enterthewar”toshowtheirreluctancetofightthewaretc.andwemayfindmanysuchkindoftheseeuphemismsinpressconferences.Themostimportantandultimatefunctionorpurposeoftheuseofdiplomaticeuphemismsinpressconferencesistodisguiseorbeauti