領(lǐng)導(dǎo)學(xué)：在實(shí)踐中提升領(lǐng)導(dǎo)力（原書第10版）教案-指導(dǎo)手冊(cè) 第5章　價(jià)值觀、倫理與個(gè)人品格　

Chapter05–Values,Ethics,andCharacter

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Copyright2022?McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.

Part2:FocusontheLeader

Followers

Leader

Situation

Chapter5:Values,Ethics,andCharacter

LearningObjectivesforChapter05

LO05-01:Describewhyvalues,ethics,andcharacterareimportantforeffectiveleaders.

LO05-02:Comparetwocharacter-basedleadershipapproaches:authenticandservant.

LO05-03:Maptherolesofethicsandvaluesinorganizationalleadership.

Chapter05BriefOutline

Introduction

Leadershipand“DoingtheRightThings”

Values

MoralReasoningandCharacter-BasedLeadership

Character-BasedApproachestoLeadership

AuthenticLeadership

ServantLeadership

TheRolesofEthicsandValuesinOrganizationalLeadership

LeadingbyExample:TheGood,theBad,andtheUgly

CreatingandSustaininganEthicalClimate

Summary

Chapter05ExtendedOutline

Introduction

Chapter04examinedpoweranditsuseinleadership.

Leaderscanusepowerforgoodorill,

Aleader’spersonalvaluesandethicalcodemaybeamongthemostimportantdeterminantsofhowthatleaderexercisesthevarioussourcesofpoweravailable.

Recenteventsinthepubliceyehavespotlightedtheincreasedneedforthescrutinyoftheethicsofourleaders

Andmayexplainwhyscholarlyandpopularliteraturehaveturnedgreaterattentiontothequestionofethicalleadership.

Leadershipand“DoingtheRightThings”

Thephrase“doingwhatisright”soundsdeceptivelysimple.

Leaderssetamoralexampletoothersthatbecomesthemodelforanentiregroupororganization,forgoodorbad.

Leaderswhodonothonortruthdonotinspireitinothers.

Leadersshouldinternalizeastrongsetofethics–principlesofrightconductorasystemofmoralvalues.

Whatever“trueleadership”means,mostpeoplewouldagreethatataminimumitischaracterizedbyahighdegreeoftrustbetweenleaderandfollowers.

Researchersassertthatfourqualitiesofleadershipengendertrust:vision,empathy,consistency,andintegrity.

Anotherimportantfactoraffectingthedegreeoftrustbetweenleadersandfollowersinvolvesfundamentalassumptionspeoplemakeabouthumannature.

DouglasMcGregoridentifiedtwocontrastingsetsofassumptions,callingtheseTheoryXandTheoryY.

TheoryXreflectsamorepessimisticviewofothers.

Managersrelyheavilyoncoercive,externalcontrolmethodstomotivateworkers

Suchaspay,discipline,punishments,andthreats

Theyassumepeoplearenotnaturallyindustriousormotivatedtowork.

Managersmustoverseetheirworkandcreateincentivestodowellanddisincentivestoavoidslackingoff

TheoryYreflectsaviewthatmostpeopleareintrinsicallymotivatedbytheirwork

Peoplevalueasenseofachievement,personalgrowth,prideincontributing,andrespectforajobwelldone

ResearchshowsthatmanagersfollowingTheoryXaremorelikelytobelower-achieving

Values

Valuesareconstructsrepresentinggeneralizedbehaviorsorstatesofaffairsconsideredbytheindividualtobeimportant.

Valuesplayacentralroleinyouroverallpsychologicalmakeupandcanaffectbehaviorinavarietyofsituations–work,home,relationships,decision-making.

Aninterestingperspectiveontheimportanceoftheconsistencybetweenone’sbehaviorandtheirvaluesisshowninHighlight5.1.

Table5.1listssomeofthemajorvaluesconsideredimportantinanorganization.

Theinstrumentalvaluesrefertomodesofbehavior

Theterminalvaluesrefertodesiredendstates

Thepointtokeepinmindisnotjustthatpeoplehavedifferentvalues,itisthattheirdifferentvaluessometimesleadthemtobehaveverydifferently.

Broadforceslikemajorhistoricalevents,technologicalchangesandeconomicconditionstendstocreatecommonvaluesystemsamongpeoplegrowingupduringaparticulartime.

Misunderstandingsexistingbetweenolderleadersandyoungerfollowersmaybeafactoroftheirbasicvaluesystemsbeingformulatedduringdifferentsocialconditions.

TheVeterans(1922-1943)

CameofageduringtheGreatDepressionandWWII

Representawealthofloreandwisdom

TheBabyBoomers(1942-1960)

Cameofageduringviolentsocialprotests,experimentationofnewlifestyles,andpervasivequestioningofestablishmentvalues

Theydonotthinkofthemselvesas“theproblem”intheworkplace,thoughtheysometimesare.

Theywantalevelplayingfield,butholdfartoomanymeetingsfortheGenXer

Astheyretire,theytakewiththemaworkethiccharacterizedbyambition,anachievementorientation,andorganizationalloyalty

TheGenXers(1961-1981)

GrewupduringWatergate,theenergycrisis,higherdivorcerates,MTV,andcorporatedownsizing–manywerelatchkeykids.

Technologicallysavvy,independent,andskepticalofinstitutionsandhierarchy

Entrepreneurialandembracechange–don’tbelieveinjobsecurity

Theyseekbalanceintheirlivesmorethanprecedinggenerations

Thechallengeismeetingtheirneedforfeedbackwithoutclosesupervision

Theyseeleadingaseliminatingobstaclesandgivingemployeeswhattheyneed

Theyexpectmanagersto“earntheirstripes”andnotobtaintheirpositionbyseniority–oftenperceivedasasignofdisrespect,butisreallyskepticism

Millennials(1982-2005)

Optimistic

Theyshuntraditionalracialandsexualcategorizing

Theyseekteamwork,security,andwork-lifebalance

Theircomfortlevelwithtransparencywilllikelychangetheworkplace

Manyareperceivedashavingalackofdriveandlackofaccountabilityyetstillexpectpositiveevaluations

Istheideaofagenerationgapinvaluesamyth?

Onestudyfound“overwhelmingconsistency”inthewaysmanagersfromdifferentgenerationsevaluatedtheimportanceofvariousleadershippractices.

ConcludingtheBoomers,Xers,andMillennialsinthemanagerialworkforcearemoresimilarinviewsofleadershipthantheyaredifferent.

ProfilesinLeadership5.1describesaleaderwhoseworkimpactedindividualvaluesandindividualmoraldevelopment.

MoralReasoningandCharacter-BasedLeadership

Values,orwhatpeopleclaimtovalue,isonething.

Relatedtothisishowpeoplethinkandactconcerningmattersofrightandwrong

Kohlberg’stheoryofmoraldevelopmentisdescribedinHighlight5.2,andbelow

Thetheoryincludessixstagesofmoraldevelopmentthatfallunderthreebasiclevels

Preconventionallevel(stage1and2)–aperson’scriteriaformoralbehaviorisbasedprimarilyonself-interestsuchasavoidingpunishmentorbeingrewarded

Conventionallevel(stage3and4)–thecriteriaformoralbehaviorisbasedongainingothers’approvalandbehavingconventionallyasdefinedbysocialnorms

Postconventionallevel(stage5and6)–criteriabasedonuniversal,abstractprinciplesthattranscendlawsandnormsofaparticularsociety

Valuesplayakeyroleinthemoralreasoningprocessbecausevaluedifferencesoftenresultindifferentjudgmentsregardingethicalandunethicalbehavior.

Ofcourse,noteveryonefullydevelopstheirmoraljudgement.

Thedual-processtheoryofmoraljudgmentholdsthatdealingprimarilywith“rights”and“duties”aremadebyautomaticemotionalresponses

Whereasmoraljudgmentsmadeonamoreutilitarianbasisaremademorecognitively

Forexample,ponderthedilemmasfoundinHighlight5.3

Afarmorecommonchallenge,orethicaldilemma,involveschoosingbetweentwo“rights”

Fourethicaldilemmasaresocommon,theyserveasmodelsorparadigms

Truthversusloyalty

Individualversuscommunity

Shorttermversuslongterm

Justiceversusmercy

Threeprinciplesforresolvingethicaldilemmasare:

Ends-basedthinking

Utilitarianthinking“dowhat’sbestforthegreatestnumberofpeople”

Rule-basedthinking

Kantianphilosophy“followingthehighestprincipleorduty”

Care-basedthinking

TheGoldenRule“dowhatyouwantotherstodotoyou”

Theabilitytomakereasonedjudgmentsaboutethicallyladensituationsdoesnotguaranteeapersonwillactethically

Researchhasidentifiedfourparticularbiasesthatmayaffectourmoraldecision-making

Oneoftheseisimplicitprejudicewhichdistortsaperson’sjudgmentwithoutawareness

Anotherbiasisin-groupfavoritismwherepeoplehelpotherswhoarelikethem

Overclaimingcreditisanotherwaywefoolourselvesaboutourmoralvirtue

Ourethicaljudgmentsareadverselyimpactedbyconflictsofinterest

SeeProfilesinLeadership5.2

Overconfidenceseemstobecausedbythebiasofidealizingourownbehavior,whichmayleaveusill-preparedtomakethemostethicalchoicesinachallengingsituation

Beingawareofthisbiashelpsyouavoidthistrap.

Highlight5.4offerssomesuggestionsforself-awareness

Arelatedaspectinvolveshowpeopledissociatetheirmoralthinkingfromtheiractions

Moraljustificationallowingustoreinterpretotherwiseimmoralbehaviorintermsofahigherpurpose

Euphemisticlabelingusescosmeticwordstodefuseordisguisedistastefulbehavior

Advantageouscomparisonletsyouavoidself-contemptbycomparingyourbehaviorwithmoreheinousbehavior

Displacementofresponsibilityattributesresponsibilitytoothers

Diffusionofresponsibilityholdsthatothersarebehavingthesameway

Disregardordistortionofconsequencesallowsyoutominimizetheharmyoucaused

Dehumanizationallowsyoutoavoidmoralconsequencesofyourbehavior

Attributionofblamemeansyoujustifyimmoralbehaviorbyclaimingitwascausedbysomeoneelse’sactions

Scholarsaregivingincreasedattentiontotheconceptofcharacter

Theysuggestgreaterattentionbepaidtomoralpotencywiththreemaincomponents

Moralownership

Asenseofresponsibilitynotonlytoourownethicalnature

Butalsoacommitmenttonotallowunethicalthingstohappenaroundus

Moralcourage

Thefortitudetofaceriskandovercomefearsassociatedwithethicalaction

Moralefficacy

Confidenceinyourabilitytomobilizepersonal,interpersonal,andotherexternalresourcestopersistdespitemoraladversity

Character-BasedApproachestoLeadership

Ethicalleadershipinvolvesthetwocorecomponents:themoralperson(aprincipledecisionmakerwhocaresforpeopleandsociety)andthemoralmanager(managerswhomakeethicsanexplicitmissionintheirleadershipandmanagementagenda)

AuthenticLeadership

Authenticleadershipisgroundedintheprincipleofthefamiliaradage“tothineownselfbetrue.”

Authenticleadersexhibitaconsistencybetweentheirvalues,theirbeliefs,andtheiractions.

Authenticleadersbothareself-awareandself-consciouslyaligntheiractionswiththeirinnervalues.

Authenticityasaleaderissomethingthatyoumustalwaysbestrivingtoenhance.

Regularlyidentifywithyourbestself

Checkinwithyourcorevaluesconcerningyourleadershipagendaandoperatingpractices

Verifythatyouractionsarealignedwiththehighestethicalandmoralprinciplesyouhold

Thestudyofauthenticleadershiphasgainedconsiderablemomentuminthelastdecadebecauseofthebeliefsthat:

Enhancingself-awarenesscanhelppeopleinorganizationsfindmoremeaningandconnectionatwork

Promotingtransparencyandopennessinrelationships—evenbetweenleaderandfollowers—buildstrustandcommitment

Fosteringmoreinclusivestructuresandpracticesinorganizationscanhelpbuildmorepositiveethicalclimates

Authenticleadersarewillingtobeviewedasvulnerablebytheirfollowers

Avitalcomponentofbuildingatrustingleader-followerrelationship

Equallyimportanttobuildingtrustisaleader’swillingnesstobetransparent

Somescholarsstillviewauthenticleadershipwithajaundicedeye,seeHighlight5.5

ServantLeadership

Withservantleadership,theleader’sroleisliterallytoserveothers

Tencharacteristicsareoftenassociatedwithservantleaders:

Listening

Mostleadersfocusoncommunicatingtoothers

Butservantleadershipputstheemphasisonlisteningeffectivelytoothers

Empathy

Servantleadersneedtounderstandothers’feelingsandperspectives

Healing

Servantleadershelpfostereachperson’semotionalandspiritualhealth

Awareness

Servantleadersunderstandtheirownvalues,feelings,strengths,andweaknesses

Persuasion

Ratherthanrelyingonpositionalauthority,servantleadersinfluenceothersthroughtheirpersuasiveness

Conceptualization

Servantleadersneedtointegratepresentrealitiesandfuturepossibilities

Foresight

Servantleadersneedtohaveawell-developedsenseofintuitionabouthowthepast,present,andfutureareconnected

Stewardship

Servantleadersarestewardswhoholdanorganization’sresourcesintrustforthegreatergood

Commitmenttoothers’growth

Theultimatetestofaservantleader’sworkiswhetherthoseserveddeveloptowardbeingmoreresponsible,caring,andcompetentindividuals

Buildingcommunity

Itistheservantleader’sroletohelpcreateasenseofcommunityamongpeople

Effectiveservantleadersareabletoinspirefollowerstoserveeachother,customers,andthebroadercommunity

Thisfeelingofcommunityisa“servingculture”

Theconceptofservantleadershiphasdetractorsaswellasadherents

Themostcommoncriticismisthatwhentakenliterally,theconceptseemstosuggestthatservingothersisanendinitselfratherthanameanstootherorganizationalgoals

Oneformofleaderthatseemstobethecompleteantithesisofaservantleaderisanarcissisticone,andHighlight5.6examinesthatstyleofleadership

Ascholarlyreviewofthetheoryofservantleadershipnotedaconflictbetweentheideasofservantleadershipandtheinherentrealitiesoforganizationallife

Servantleadersdeveloppeople,helpingthemtostriveandflourish

Servantleaderswantthosetheyservetobecomehealthier,wiser,freer,andmoreautonomous

Servantleadersservefollowers

Butmanagersarehiredtocontributetoorganizationalgoalattainment

Thesegoalscanbeattainedonlybyhavingsubordinatessolvingtasksthatleadtoproductivityandeffectiveness

Productivityandeffectivenessmaynotbeinherentlyincompatiblewithservantleadership–itincreasestrust,reducesturnover,andincreasesemployeesatisfaction

Evenifservantleadershipandtherealitiesoforganizationallifearenotirreconcilable,theyatleastpresentclearchallenges

Howempatheticallycanandshouldaleaderact?

Showinggenuineempathyisemotionallyexhausting,self-limiting,andmayopenapersontolapsesinethicaljudgment

TheRolesofEthicsandValuesinOrganizationalLeadership

Justasindividualspossessasetofpersonalvalues,sotoodoorganizationshavedominantvalues

Whetherstatedvaluesaretrueoperatingprinciplesor“spin”forinvestorsdependsonthealignmentbetweenthestatedvaluesandthecollectivevaluesoftopleadership

Thereisoftenasignificantgapbetweenacompany’sstatedvaluesandthewaythecompanyoperates

Knowingthevaluesoftopleadershipmaytellyoumorehowacompanyoperates

Relatedtothisisthenotionofemployee“fit”

Employeeswithvaluessimilartotheorganizationaremoresatisfiedandlikelytostay

Thosewithdissimilarvaluesaremorelikelytoleave

Onereasonleadersfailisduetoamisalignmentbetweenpersonalandorganizationalvalues

However,leaderswithdissimilarvaluesmaybeexactlywhatanorganizationneedstodrivechangeandbecomemoreeffective

Valuesareoftenakeyfactorinbothintrapersonalandinterpersonalconflict.

Manyofthemostdifficultdecisionsmadebyleadersarechoicesbetweenopposingvalues.

Valuesalsoplayakeyroleinconflictbetweengroups

Insum,it’svitalforaleadertosetapersonalexampleofvalues-basedleadership,anditisalsoimportantforleaders—especiallyseniorones—tomakesureclearvaluesguideeveryone’sbehaviorintheorganization.

Thatislikelytohappenonlyiftheleadersetsanexampleofdesiredbehavior

LeadingbyExample:TheGood,TheBad,andTheUgly

Whatdoesitmeantoexemplifyethicalleadershipandbeanethicalrolemodel?

Notallethicalrolemodelsexhibitedexactlythesamequalities,butfourgeneralcategoriesofattitudesandbehaviorsseemtocharacterizethegroup

Interpersonalbehaviors

Theyshowcare,concern,andcompassionforothers

Theyarehardworkingandhelpful

Theyvaluetheirrelationships,workingtomaintainandsustainthem

Theyfocusonthepositiveratherthanthenegative

Theyacceptothers’failures

Basicfairness

Theyarenotonlyopentoinputbutactivelyseekit

Theytendtoofferexplanationsofdecisions

Theytreatothersrespectfully,nevercondescending,evenamiddisagreements

Ethicalactionsandself-expectations

Theyholdthemselvestohighethicalstandards

Theybehaveconsistentlyinboththeirpublicandprivatelives

Theyacceptresponsibilityforandareopenabouttheirownethicalfailings

Theyareperceivedashonest,trustworthy,humble,andhavinghighintegrity

Articulatingethicalstandards

Theyarticulateaconsistentethicalvision

Theyareuncompromisingtowardthatvisionandthehighethicalstandardsitimplies

Theyholdothersethicallyaccountable

Theyputethicalstandardsabovepersonalandshort-termcompanyinterests

Whatshouldyoudowhenyourownbossdoesnotbehaveethically?

Upwardethicalleadershipreferstoleadershipbehaviorenactedbyindividualswhotakeactiontomaintainethicalstandardsinthefaceofquestionablemoralbehaviorbyhigher-ups

However,therearereasonsthatmayconstrainemployeesinsuchasituation

Oneisfearofretributionbytheboss

Anothervariableisthegeneralethicalclimateintheorganization

Ethicalclimatesrefertothoseinwhichethicalstandardsandnormshavebeenconsistently,clearly,andpervasivelycommunicated,embraced,andenforced

Unethicalclimateshavequestionableorunethicalbehaviorexistingwithlittleactiontakentocorrectsuchbehavior,orworseevencondoningthebehavior

Eveninanethicalclimate,employeesmayneedasenseofpersonalpowertoaddressperceivedethicalproblemsinanactiveandconstructivemanner

Beinginaformalleadershiproleimposesuniqueethicalresponsibilitiesandchallenges

Leadersmorethanfollowers

Possessuniquedegreesofbothlegitimateandcoercivepower

Enjoygreaterprivileges

Haveaccesstomoreinformation

Havegreaterauthorityandresponsibility

Interactwithabroaderrangeofstakeholderswhoexpectequitabletreatment

Mustbalancesometimescompetingloyaltieswhenmakingdecisions

Withconditionslikethese,itisallthemoreimportantforleaderstotakepositivestepstocreateanethicalclimateandholdthemselvesaccountabletoit

ThedangersofnotdoingsoareunderscoredinthedownfallofEnron,describedinHighlight5.7

CreatingandSustaininganEthicalClimate

Several“fronts”ofleadershipactionareneededtoestablishanethicalorganizationalclimate

Formalethicspoliciesandprocedures

Formalstatementsofethicalstandardsandpolicies

Reportingmechanisms

Disciplinaryprocedures

Penaltiesforsuspectedethicalviolations

Coreideology

Thisistheorganization’sheartandsoul

Representstheorganization’spurpose,guidingprinciples,basicidentity,andmostimportantvalues

Integrity

Thecoreideologymustbepartofthefabricofeverylevelandunitofthecompany

Organizationalintegritydescribesanorganizationwhosepronouncementsarecongruentwithitspublicandprivateactionsateverylevel

Especiallyimportantthatthehighestlevelexecutivesdemonstratehighintegrity

Structuralreinforcement

Anorganization’sstructureandsystemscanbedesignedtoencourageethicalperformanceanddiscourageunethicalperformance

Performanceevaluationsystemsshouldincludeanonymousfeedback

Rewardsystemsshouldpromotehonestyandfairness

Processfocus

Howgoalsareachievedneedtobethefocusofattentionandemphasis

Seniorleaderswhosetexceptionallyhighgoalsencourageunethicalbehavior

Leaderswhoignoresmalltransgressions,canexpectlargertransgressionslateron

Anotherwaytothinkabouttheessenceofcreatinganethicalclimateistorecognizethatitisnotsimplythesumofthecollectivemoralitiesofitsmembers

Principle-centeredleadershippostulatesafundamentalinterdependencebetweenthepersonal,theinterpersonal,themanagerial,andtheorganizationallevelsofleadership.

Theuniqueroleofeachlevelmaybethoughtoflikethis:

Personal

Thefirstimperativeistobeatrustworthyperson,andthatdependsbothoncharacterandcompetence

Onlytrustworthypeoplecanhavetrustingrelationshipswithothers

Interpersonal

Relationshipsthatlacktrustarecharacterizedbyself-protectiveeffortstocontrolandverifyeachother’sbehavior

Managerial

Onlyinatrustingrelationshipwillmanagersriskempoweringothers

Evenwithempowerment,leadingahigh-performinggroupdependsonskillsliketeambuilding,delegation,communication,negotiation,andself-management

Organizational

Anorganizationwillbemostcreativeandproductivewhenitsstructure,systems,strategy,andvisionarealignedandmutuallysupportive

Certainalignmentsaremorelikelythanotherstonurtureandreinforceethicalbehavior

Whyshouldacompanygotothetroubleofcreatingandsustaininganethicalclimate?

Becauseitistherightthingtodo

Itisnoteasytocreateandsustainanethicalenvironment

Butitenablesgreatercollaboration,improvesthesocialstandingandmarketsharefortheorganizationandmayevenallowthemtooutperformtheircompetitors

Itcanalsoincreaserevenues–ethicsandvaluescanbegoodbusiness

SevenmoralchallengesofleadershiparepresentedinHighlight5.8

Summary

Thischapterhasreviewedevidenceregardingtherelationshipsamongethics,values,andleadership

Ethicsisabranchofphilosophythatdealswithrightconduct

Valuesareconstructsthatrepresentgeneralsetsofbehaviorsorstatesofaffairsthatindividualsconsiderimportant–acentralpartofaleader’spsychologicalmakeup

Valuesaffectleadershipthroughaculturalcontextwithinwhichvariousattributesandbehaviorsareregardeddifferentially–positivelyornegatively

Itisnotjustthecontentofone’sbeliefsaboutrightandwrongthatmatters

Howonemakesmoralorethicaljudgments,orthemannerbywhichonesolvesmoralproblems,isalsoimportantandisreferredtoasmoralreasoning

Ethicalactioninvolvesmorethanjustthecognitiveprocessofmoralreasoning

Manyethicaldilemmasinvolvechoicesbetweentwodifferent“rights”

Insuchcasesitisusefultoapplyseveraldifferentprinciplesforresolvingmoraldilemmas

Manyapproachestoleadershipexplicitlyaddresstheinterdependenciesbetweeneffectiveleadershipandparticularvaluesystems

Amongthesearetheconceptsofauthenticleadershipandservantleadership

Thereisalsoincreasedinterestinthekindsofpracticesthatenhancethelikelihoodofcreatinganethicalclimate

DefinitionsofKeyTermsforChapter05

Ethics:Principlesofrightconductorasystemofmoralvalues.

TheoryX:Apessimisticviewofothersresultinginmanagerswhorelyheavilyoncoercive,external-controlmethodstomotivateworkersbecauseworkersarenotindustriousormotivatedbynature.

TheoryY:Aviewthatmostpeopleareintrinsicallymotivatedbytheirwork;ratherthanneedingtobecoaxedorcoercedtheseworkersvalueasenseofachievement,personalgrowth,pride,andrespectforajobwelldone.

Values:Constructsrepresentinggeneralizedbehaviorsorstatesofaffairsthatareconsideredbytheindividualtobeimportant—valuesclearlyaffectbehaviorandchoicemechanisms.

Moralreasoning:Theprocessleadersusetomakedecisionsaboutethicalandunethicalbehaviors.

Dual-processtheory:Moraljudgmentsdealingprimarilywith“rights”and“duties”aremadebyautomaticemotionalresponseswhilemoraljudgmentsmadeonamoreutilitarianbasisaremademorecognitively.

Ethicaldilemmas:Situationswhereapersonisforcedtochoosebetweentwocoursesofactionthatcouldbothbeconsidered“right”.

Truthvs.loyaltyethicaldilemmas:Actinghonestlywhendoingsocouldcompromiserealorimpliedloyaltytoothers.

Individualvs.communityethicaldilemmas:Protectingaperson’sconfidentialitywhenthatactmayitselfmayposethreattothelargercommunity.

Short-termvs.long-termethicaldilemmas:Makingdecisionsforshort-termbenefitattheexpenseoflong-termbenefit.

Justicevs.mercyethicaldilemmas:Followingthroughwithwhatisjustorshowingmercyandforegoingjustice.

Ends-basedthinking:Knownasutilitarianisminphilosophy,thisispremisedontheideathatrightandwrongarebestdeterminedbyconsideringtheconsequencesorresultsofanaction.

Rule-basedthinking:Characterizedas“followingthehighestprincipleorduty”,determinedbythekindsofstandardseveryoneshouldupholdallthetime,whateverthesituation.

Care-basedthinking:A“dowhatyouwantotherstodotoyou”approachthatappliesthecriterionofreversibilityindeterminingtherightnessofactions.

Implicitprejudice:Judgmentsaboutsomegroupbeingsystematicallybiasedwithoutthejudger’sawareness.

In-groupfavoritism:Providingfavorsandactsofkindnessormakingexceptionsthatfavorsomeonewhois“l(fā)ikeus.”

Overclaimingcredit:Overratingthequalityofourownworkandourcontributionstothegroupsandteamswebelongto.

Conflictsofinterest:Situationswhereourjudgmentordecisioncouldbepotentiallybiasedbypersonalinvolvement.

Moraljustification:Involvesreinterpretingotherwiseimmoralbehaviorintermsofahigherpurpose,whichcanbeseenmostreadilyinthebehaviorsofcombatantsinwar.

Euphemisticlabeling:Dissociatingbehaviorsfromone’sespousedmoralprinciplesbyusing“cosmetic”wordstodefuseordisguisetheoffensivenessofotherwisemorallyrepugnantordistastefulbehavior.

Advantageouscomparison:Allowsonetoavoidself-contemptforbehaviorbycomparingittoanevenmoreheinousbehaviorbyothers.

Displacementofresponsibility:Peopleareabletoviolatepersonalmoralstandardsbyattributingresponsibilitytoothers(i.e.,peoplewhoaremerelycarryingoutorders).

Diffusionofresponsibility:Morallyreprehensiblebehavioriseasiertoengageinandlivewithbecauseothersarebehavinginthesamemanner.

Disregardordistortionofconsequences:Amechanismwherebypeopleminimizetheharmcausedbytheirbehavior—thiscanbeasignificantproblemwhenpeopleareinsulatedfromtheconsequencesofthedecisionstheymake.

Dehumanization:Anotherwayofavoidingmoralconsequencesf