領導學：在實踐中提升領導力（原書第10版）教案-指導手冊 第2章　領導者開發(fā)

Chapter02-LeaderDevelopment

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Copyright2022?McGraw-HillEducation.Allrightsreserved.NoreproductionordistributionwithoutthepriorwrittenconsentofMcGraw-HillEducation.

Part1:LeadershipIsaProcess,NotaPosition

Leadership

Followers

Leader

Situation

Chapter2LeaderDevelopment

LearningObjectivesforChapter02

LO02-01:DescribehowtheAORmodelenhancesleadershipdevelopment.

LO02-02:DeterminetheroleofperceptionineachpartoftheAORmodel.

LO02-03:Discusstheimportanceofreflectioninleadershipdevelopment.

LO02-04:Predicthowtomakethemostofyourleadershipexperiences.

LO02-05:Generalizethefourcommonmethodsofleaderdevelopment.

LO02-06:Clarifyhowtobuildyourownleadershipself-image

Chapter02BriefOutline

Introduction

TheAction-Observation-ReflectionModel

TheKeyRoleofPerceptionintheSpiralofExperience

PerceptionandObservation

PerceptionandReflection

PerceptionandAction

ReflectionandLeadershipDevelopment

Single-andDouble-LoopLearning

MakingtheMostofYourLeadershipExperiences:LearningtoLearnfromExperience

LeaderDevelopmentinCollege

LeaderDevelopmentinOrganizationalSettings

ActionLearning

DevelopmentPlanning

Coaching

Mentoring

BuildingYourOwnLeadershipSelf-Image

Summary

Chapter02ExtendedOutline

ChapterIntroduction:LeadershipDevelopment

InChapter01wediscussedtheimportanceofusingmultipleperspectivestoanalyzevariousleadershipsituations.

Itisalsotruethattherearemultiplepathsbywhichyourownleadershipisdeveloped.

Thatiswhatthischapterisabout:howtobecomeabetterleader.

Asanoverview,webeginthischapterbypresentingageneralmodelthatdescribeshowwelearnfromexperience.

Next,wedescribehowperceptionscanaffectaleader’sinterpretationof,andactionsinresponseto,aparticularleadershipsituationandwhyreflectionisimportanttoleadershipdevelopment.

Thechapteralsoexaminesseveralspecificmechanismsoftenusedtohelpleadersbecomebetterleaders.

Althoughleaderdevelopmentandleadershipdevelopmentmayseemsynonymous,theyaretreatedbyscholarsandpractitionersinthefieldashavingdistinctmeanings.

Thetermleadershipdevelopmentdesignatesafocusondevelopingsharedpropertiesofwholegroupsorsocialsystemssuchas

Thedegreeoftrustamongallthemembersofateamordepartment,

Oronenhancingtherewardsystemsinanorganizationtobetterencouragecollaborativebehavior.

However,thefocusofthischapterwillbeonleaderdevelopmentprocessesandmethodsdesignedtofosterindividual-levelgrowth.

Leaderdevelopmentinmostlargeorganizationsinvolvesformaltraining,eventhoughresearchconsistentlyshowsthatitisnotthemosteffectivemethod.

Researchshowsthattotheextentthatleadershipislearnedatall,itislearnedfromexperience.

TheAction-Observation-ReflectionModel

Makingthemostofexperienceisthekeytodevelopingyourleadershipability.

Inotherwords,leadershipdevelopmentdependsnotjustonthekindsofexperiencesyouhavebutalsoonhowyouusethemtofostergrowth.

Learningtheoristsbelievepeoplecanlearnmorefromtheirexperienceswhentheyspendtimethinkingaboutandreflectingonthoseexperiences.

Thisnotionprovidesthebasisfortheaction-observation-reflection(A-O-R)modelandthespiralofexperience,depictedinFigure2.1.

Leadershipdevelopmentinenhancedwhentheexperienceinvolvesthreedifferentprocesses:action,observation,andreflection.

Leadershipdevelopmentmaybebetterunderstoodasthegrowthresultingfromrepeatedmovementsthroughallthreephasesratherthanmerelyintermsofsomeobjectivedimensionliketime–howlongyouhaveheldthejob.

TheKeyRoleofPerceptionintheSpiralofExperience

Experienceisnotjustamatterofwhateventshappentoyou–italsodependsonhowyouperceivethoseevents.

Perceptionaffectsallthreephasesoftheaction-observation-reflectionmodel

Perceptionplaysanimportantroleinwhatyouextractfromanyleadershipsituation.

Peopleactivelyshapeandconstructtheirexperiences.

Wewillnowexamineperception’sroleineachpartoftheA-O-Rmodel

InHighlight2.1youmightdiscoversomethingaboutyourobservationalskillsandhowluckyyouthinkyouare.

PerceptionandObservation

Observationandperceptionbothdealwithattendingtoeventsaroundus.

Bothseemtotakeplacespontaneouslyandeffortlessly,soitiseasytoregardthemaspassiveprocesses.

Thefallacyofthispassiveviewofperceptionisthatisassumesweattendtoallaspectsofasituationequally.

However,wedonotseeeverythingthathappensinaparticularleadershipsituation,nordoweheareverything.

Weareselectiveinwhatweattendtoandwhatwe,inturn,perceive.

Onephenomenonthatdemonstratesthisselectivityiscalledperceptualset.

Perceptualsetscaninfluenceanyofoursenses,andtheyarethetendencyorbiastoperceiveonethingandnotanother.

Manyfactorscantriggeraperceptualset,suchasfeelings,needs,priorexperience,andexpectations.

Ourownbiasesandstereotypesbecomeperceptualsets.

Wemaybecomeawareofourperceptualsetsonlywhenwespendtimereflecting.

Highlight2.2describesanotherwayour“observations”maybelessobjectivethanwethink–andawayyoucantrytoimprovethem.

Highlight2.3encouragesyoutopracticeobservingusingvariouskindsof“l(fā)enses.”

PerceptionandReflection

Perceptualsetsinfluencewhatweattendtoandwhatweobserve.

Inaddition,perceptioninfluencesthenextphaseofthespiralofexperience–reflection–becausereflectionishowweinterpretourobservations.

Perceptionisaninterpretive,orameaning-makingactivity.

Animportantaspectofthisisaprocesscalledattribution.

Attributionsaretheexplanationswedevelopforthecharacteristics,behaviors,oractionstowhichweattend.

Ifyouseeanotherstudentfailinanattempttoformastudygroup,youarelikelytoattributethecauseofthefailuretodispositionalfactorswithinthestudent.

Attributingthefailuretoformastudygrouptotheotherstudent’sintelligence,personality,physicalappearance,oranotherfactor.

Thistendencytooverestimatethedispositionalcausesofbehaviorandunderestimatetheenvironmentalcauseswhenothersfailiscalledthefundamentalattributionerror.

Bycontrast,whenyoufailtoformastudygroup,youaremorelikelytoblamefactorsonthesituation.

Thisreflectsaself-servingbiaswhichisthetendencytomakeexternalattributions(blamethesituation)forone’sownfailuresyetmakeinternalattributions(takecredit)forone’ssuccesses.

Athirdfactorthataffectstheattributionprocessiscalledtheactor/observerdifference.

Thisreferstothefactthatpeoplewhoareobservinganactionaremorelikelythantheactortomakethefundamentalattributionerror.

Puttingthesefactorstogether,eachofustendstoseeourownsuccessasduetoourintelligence,personality,orphysicalabilities,

Butothers’successasmoreattributabletosituationalfactorsorluck.

Notethatreflectionalsoinvolveshigherfunctionslikeevaluationandjudgment,notjustperceptionandattribution.

PerceptionandAction

Wehaveseenhowperceptioninfluencesboththeobservationandreflectionphasesinthespiralofexperience–italsoaffectstheactionswetake.

Perceptionsandbiasesaffectsupervisors’actionsinresponsetopoorlyperformingsubordinates–resortingtopunishmenttoremedyperformancedeficits.

Anotherperceptualvariablethatcanaffectouractionsistheself-fulfillingprophecy.

Forexample,economists’predictionsofaneconomicdownturnmayleadtojustthat.

Thisoccursattheinterpersonalleveltoo.

Aperson’sexpectationsaboutanothermayinfluencehowtheyacttowardstheotherperson,

Aninreactiontothisbehavior,theotherpersonmayactinawaythatconfirmstheexpectation.

AnillustrativeinteractionsequenceisshowninFigure2.2

ReflectionandLeadershipDevelopment

Perhapsthemostimportantyetmostneglectedcomponentoftheaction–observation–reflectionmodelisreflection.

Reflectionisimportantbecauseitcanprovideleaderswithavarietyofinsightsintohowtoframeproblemsdifferently,lookatsituationsfrommultipleperspectives,orbetterunderstandsubordinates.

Mindsetisalsohelpfulinleadershipdevelopment–exploredinHighlight2.4

Onereasonthereflectioncomponentisoftenneglectedisbecauseoftheimplicitortaken-for-grantedbeliefsaboutleadershipthatmanypeoplehave.

Implicitbeliefscankeepapersonfromseeingthingsinnewways.

Leadershipdevelopmentcanbeenhancedbyraisingsuchimplicitbeliefstoconsciousawarenessandmoretothoughtfulreflection.

Oneapproachistothinkofthemetaphorsofleadership,orthefivefundamentalarchetypesofleadership.

Teacher-Mentor

Caresaboutdevelopingothersandworksbesidethemasarolemodel.

Father-Judge

Providesoversight,control,moralguidance,andcaringprotectiveness.

Warrior-Knight

Takesrisksandactioninacrisis.

Revolutionary-Crusader

Challengesthestatusquoandguidesadaptation.

Visionary-Alchemist

Imaginespossibilitiesthatcanbenefitallmembersandbringsthemintoreality.

Onereasonapersonmayneglectopportunitiesforreflectionistheideathatleadershipdevelopmentmaynotevenbepossible–likeafixedmindset,asdescribedinHighlight2.4.

Anotherreasonmaybetimepressureatwork.

Someleadersmaynotbeawareofthevalueofreflectioninleadershipdevelopment.

Othersmaybesooverconfidenttheyfallvictimtotheirself-imposedblindersandfailtoseesituationsfromalternativepossibleperspectives.

Single-andDouble-LoopLearning

Single-looplearningischaracterizedbyaprocesswherethelearnerseekslittlefeedbackthatwouldconfronttheirfundamentalideasoractions.

Thereisrelativelylittlepublictestingofideasagainstvalidinformation.

Itallowsthelearnertostayintheir“comfortzone”andoftenallowstheirbeliefsystemtobecomeself-fulfilling.

Theymightlearnhowwelltheyareachievingadesignatedgoal.

Theyarefarlesslikelytoquestionthevalidityofthegoalorthevaluesimplicitinthesituation.

Ontheotherhand,double-looplearninginvolvesawillingnesstoconfrontyourownviewsandaninvitationtootherstodoso,too.

Itspringsfromanappreciationthatopennesstoinformationandpowersharingwithotherscanleadto

Betterrecognitionanddefinitionofproblems,

Improvedcommunication,

Andincreaseddecision-makingeffectiveness.

Masteringdouble-looplearningcanbethoughtofaslearninghowtolearn.

Theambiguity,complexity,andemotionalityofleadershipexperiencescanmakeitdifficultforaleadertodeterminecausalrelationshipsbetweenbehaviorandspecificoutcomes,

Orwhetherdifferentbehaviorwouldhaveledtodifferentoutcomes.

Whileunaidedlearningfromexperienceisdifficult,itcanbeenhancedthroughapracticeofsystematicreflectionoraftereventreviews(AERs).

TheseAERsinvolvereflectionandfacilitateddiscussiononpersonalleadershipexperiencessuchas

Whatthepotentialimpactofalternativeleadershipbehaviorsmighthavebeen

Andhowindividualsbelievetheymightbehavedifferentlyinthefuture.

MakingtheMostofYourLeadershipExperiences:LearningtoLearnfromExperience

Fordecades,researchhascontributedagreatdealtowhatpeopleneedtolearntobesuccessful,

SeeHighlight2.5foracomparisonoflessonsmenandwomenmanagerslearnfromexperience.

Lessisknownabouttheprocessoflearningorhowwelearntobesuccessful.

Butoftenitinvolvesjumpingintoasituationandbeingwillingtotakeadvantageofopportunitiesthatpresentthemselves–asProfilesinLeadership2.1portrays.

Researchshowsameaningfullinkbetweenstressandlearning.

Thelearningeventsanddevelopmentalexperiencesthatpunctuateourlivesareusually—perhapsalways—stressful.

Instressfulsituations,thereisatendencytodowhat’salwaysbeendone.

Whatresultsisoneofthegreatchallengesofadultdevelopment:

Thetimeswhenpeoplemostneedtobreakoutofthemoldcreatedbypastlearningpatternsarethetimeswhentheyaremostunwillingtodoso.

Beingabletogoagainstthegrainofyourpersonalhistoricalsuccessrequiresanunwaveringcommitmenttolearningandarelentlesswillingnesstoletgoofthefearoffailureandtheunknown.

Tobesuccessful,learningmustcontinuethroughoutlife,beyondthecompletionofyourformaleducation.

Thisappliestothespecificchallengeofbecomingandremaininganeffectiveleader.

Sowhatdoesittaketobeagoodstudentofleadership?

Itcanbesummedupintheconceptofcoachability.

Aperson’scoachability,orabilitytolearnfromexperience,canbecapturedintermsofafewkeypractices,suchas:

Valuingandsignalingtoothersaninterestinfeedbackandanintenttoimprove.

Seekingfeedbackproactivelyandregularly.

Reflectingonthatfeedbackandrespondingconstructivelytoit.

Actingonvaluedfeedback,andsustainingimprovementovertime.

ReadProfilesinLeadership2.2andformyourownimpressionofhowwiselyorwellSteveJobslearnedfromhisownexperience.

LeaderDevelopmentinCollege

Asleadershipstudiesprogramsatuniversitiescontinuetoincreaseinnumber,severalfeaturesshouldguidetheirdesign.

Suchprogramsshouldbemultidisciplinary,academicallyauthorized,cultivatingvaluesrepresentedinthebroaderfield,andfocusingonexpecteddevelopmentaloutcomes.

Somekeycurricularcomponentsofcollege-basedleadershipstudiesprogramsinclude:

Courseworkexaminingfoundationaltheoriesandconceptsinleadership

Courseworkinethics

Servicelearningandotherexperientiallearningopportunities

Experiencesinteractingwithotherstounderstandgroupdynamics

Avarietyoffacultyfromdifferentdepartmentsanddisciplinesshouldbeinvolved

Withinleadershipstudiesprograms,variousleaderdevelopmentmethodsmaybeusedbeyondservicelearning.

Somecoursesmightinvolveindividualizedfeedbackthroughpersonality,intelligence,values,orinteresttestscoresorleadershipbehaviorratings.

Casestudiesdescribeleadershipsituationsandareusedasavehicleforleadershipdiscussions.

Roleplayingisalsoapopularmethodologythathasgreatertransferabilitytotheworkplacethandolecturesorabstractdiscussions.

Simulationsandgamesareastructuredactivitydesignedtomirrorsomechallengesordecisionscommonlyfacedintheworkenvironment.

Recentresearchsuggeststhatdevelopmentasaleadermaymostauthenticallyandenduringlyoccurwhenthecontextanddesignoftheexperiencesaffordlearnstheopportunitytodeeplypersonalizetheirlessonsofexperience.

Thismightbethroughstructuredopportunitiestoreflectondevelopmentexperiencesthatstudentsmighthavefoundpersonallydisturbingorconfusing.

LeaderDevelopmentinOrganizationalSettings

Leadershipdevelopmenthasonlyrecentlybeensubjectedtothesamekindofrigorousanalysisthatotherbusinessdecisions,especiallycapitalinvestments,routinelyface.

Thatkindofanalysisisusedtodeterminereturnoninvestment,orROI.

Researchindicatesthat,onaverage,theROIforinvestmentsinleadershipdevelopmentisbothpositiveandsubstantial.

Therearenumerousleadershiptrainingprogramsaimedparticularlytowardleadersandsupervisorsinindustryorpublicservice.

Thesetendtobemorefocusedthanauniversitycourse.

Contentdependsontheorganizationalleveloftherecipients.

Forexample,theprogramsformid-levelmanagersrelymoreheavilyonindividualizedfeedback,casestudies,presentations,role-playing,simulations,andin-basketexercisestohelpleadersdevelop.

SeeHighlight2.6foramoredetailedlookatahighlyregardedleadershipdevelopmentprogramandHighlight2.7forinnovativeapproachestoleadershipdevelopment.

Thefollowingsectionsdiscussresearchsurroundingfourpopularandincreasinglycommonmethodsofleaderdevelopment:actionlearning,developmentplanning,coaching,andmentoring.

ActionLearning

Perhapsthebestwaytoappreciatethenatureofactionlearningistocontrastitwithmoretraditionaltrainingprograms.

Traditionaltrainingprogramslikelyinvolvedattendingaclass,oftenforuptoaweek.

Thismeantatrainingprograminherentlyinvolvedtimeawayfromjobresponsibilities.

Theartificialnatureofanyexercisesaddressedinthetrainingmadeitdifficulttotransferbacktotheactualworksituation.

Actionlearning,bycontrast,involvestheuseofactualworkissuesandchallengesasadevelopmentalactivity.

Thebasicphilosophyislearningbydoing

Participantsworkinteamstotacklereal-worldorganizationalchallenges

Membersareplacedintoproblem-solvingrolesandexpectedtoreachteamdecisions,whilesharingtheiranalysisandrecommendationswithothers

Therearebuilt-inopportunitiesforfeedbackandreflectionforparticipants

Thereareseveraldrawbacks.

Thereisatenuouslinkbetweenaparticularactionlearningprojectanditsleadershipchallenges.

Employeesmaybeassignedtoactionlearningteamsontheassumptiontheywilllearnleadershiplessonsalongtheway–notalwayscorrect

Theveryelementsthatmakeactionlearningproblemssoengagingalsooftenrequireaworkpacethatdoesnotallowforeffectivereflection.

Also,inpoorlydesignedandsupportedactionlearningprojects,theworkmightbedominatedbyonepersonorbyjustoneperspective.

DevelopmentPlanning

Itispossibletochangepersonalbehavior,evenlong-standinghabits.

Researchsuggestsfivecriticalbehavioralchangequestions–leadersmustprovidepositiveanswerstoallfiveiftheywanttomaximizetheoddsofenduringbehaviorchange.

DoIknowwhichofmybehaviorsneedtochange?

Thisinsightcomponentisconcernedwithaccuratefeedback

360-degreefeedbackcanproveuseful

Othersourcesaboutdevelopmentneedscancomefromanassessmentcenter,aperformanceappraisal,ordirectfeedback

AmImotivatedtochangethesebehaviors?

Determinewhichnewskillswillhavethehighestpayoffs

Andbuilddevelopmentplansthataddresstheseneeds

Focusononlyoneortwoneedstokeepitmanageable

DoIhaveplansinplaceforchangingthetargetedbehaviors?

Createawrittendevelopmentplantoacquiretheknowledgeunderlyingaparticulardevelopmentneed–suchasdelegating

Awrittenplankeepsdevelopmentonyourradarscreens

DoIhaveopportunitiestopracticenewskills?

Newskillswillbeacquiredonlywhentheyarepracticedonthejob

70to80percentoftheactionstepsinadevelopmentplanshouldbejobrelated

AmIheldaccountableforchangingthesetargetedbehaviors?

Havedifferentpeopleprovideongoingfeedbackontheactionsteps

Periodicallyreviewprogressontheplanwiththeboss

Developmentplanningismorethanaplan–itisreallyaprocess.

Developmentplanningprovidesamethodologytoimprovebehavior,andmuchofthisdevelopmentcanoccurwhilegoingaboutdailyworkactivities.

Coaching

Developmentplanstendtobeself-focused;leadersandfollowersusethemasaroadmapforchangingtheirownbehaviors.

Thenextstepinfollowers’developmentofteninvolvescoaching.

Coachingisakeyleadershipskillthatcanhelpleaders

Improvethebenchstrengthofthegroup,andaccomplishgoals.

Retainhigh-qualityfollowers

Coachingistheprocessofequippingpeoplewiththetools,knowledge,andopportunitiestheyneedtodevelopandbecomemoresuccessful.

Therearetwotypesofcoaching:informalandformal.

Informalcoachingtakesplacewheneveraleaderhelpsfollowerstochangetheirbehaviors.

Thebestinformalcoachinggenerallyconsistsoffivesteps:forgingapartnership,inspiringcommitment,growingskills,promotingpersistence,andshapingtheenvironment.SeeTable2.1.

Severalpointsaboutinformalcoachingareworthadditionalcomment.

First,thefive-stepprocesscanbeusedbyleaderstodiagnosewhybehavioralchangeisnotoccurringandwhatcanbedoneaboutit.

Second,informalcoachingcananddoesoccuranywhereintheorganization.

Third,thisprocessisjustaseffectiveforhigh-performingfollowersasitisforlow-performingfollowers.

Coachesshouldbemindfulofthekindsofcoachingthatcoachesregardasmosthelpful–seeFigure2.3.

Fourth,both“remote”coachingofpeopleandcoachingofindividualsfromotherculturescanbeparticularlydifficult

Youarefamiliarwiththeideaofapersonalfitnesstrainer–apersonwhohelpsdesignafitnessprogramtailoredtoaspecificindividual’sneedsandgoals.

Formalcoachingprogramsprovideasimilarkindofserviceforexecutivesandmanagersinleadershippositions.

Formalcoachingisindividualized,butseveralcommonfeaturesdeservemention.

Thereisaone-on-onerelationshipbetweenmanagerandcoachthatlastsfromsixmonthstomorethanayear.

Theprocessusuallybeginsthemanager’scompletionofanassessmenttogainaclearpictureofdevelopmentneeds.

Thecoachandthemanagermeetregularlywhereroleplaysandvideorecordingsareusedextensively,withcoachesprovidingfeedback.

Asolidbodyofresearchshowsthatwell-designedandwell-executedcoachingprogramsdoinfactchangebehaviorif,asHighlight2.8pointsout,certainconditionsaremet.

Figure2.4showsthatcoachingmaybemoreeffectiveatchangingbehaviorthanmoretraditionallearningandtrainingapproaches.

Mentoring

Inanorganization,youcangainvaluableperspectivesandinsightsthroughcloseassociationwithanexperiencedpersonwillingtotakeyouundertheirwing–amentor.

Althoughmentoringhasastrongdevelopmentalcomponent,itisnotthesameascoaching.

Onekeydifferenceisthatmentoringmaynottargetspecificdevelopmentneeds.

Anotherdifferenceisthattheguidanceisnotcomingfromanimmediatesupervisorbutfromsomeonemuchhigherintheorganization.

Afinaldifferenceisthatthementormaynotevenbepartoftheorganization.

Asincoaching,therearebothformalandinformalmentoringprograms.

Informalmentoringoccurswhenaprotégéandmentorbuildalong-termrelationshipbasedonfriendship,similarinterests,andmutualrespect.

Formalmentoringoccurswhentheorganizationassignsarelativelyinexperiencedbyhigh-potentialleadertooneofthetopexecutivesinthecompany.

Researchfindsthatwhileformalmentoringprogramsarebetterthannomentoringprograms,theyarelesseffectivethaninformalmentoring.

BuildingYourOwnLeadershipSelf-Image

Noteveryonewantstobealeaderorbelievestheycanbe.

Manyyoungpeoplearedissuadedfromseekingleadershipresponsibilities.

Othersmaynotbelievetheyhavewhatittakes.

Bothgroupsmaybesellingthemselvesshort.

Nurtureplaysaroleinyourreadinessforleadershipdevelopment.

Yetover-parentinghasbeennegativelylinkedtoayoungperson’slikelihoodofemergingasaleaderingroupsituations.

Forthosewhochoosetoavoidleadership,keepanopenmindabouttheimportanceofleadershipandtheflexibilityofself-image.

ChapterSummary

Thischapterreviewedseveralmajorpointsregardinghowleadershipcanbedevelopedthroughbothformaleducationandexperience.

Onewaytogetmoreoutofyourleadershipcoursesandexperiencesisthroughtheapplicationoftheaction-observation-reflectionmodel.

Inaddition,beingawareoftheroleperceptionplaysinleadershipdevelopmentisimportantbecauseitaffectswhatyouobserve,howyouinterpretyourobservations,andwhatactionsyoutakeasaleader.

Finally,rememberthatbotheducationandexperiencecancontributetoyourdevelopmentasaleaderbyenhancingyourabilitytoreflectonandanalyzeleadershipsituations.

Ifyouwanttobecomeabetterleader,youmustseekchallengesandtrytogetallyoucanfromanyleadershipsituationoropportunity.

Thischapteralsoexaminedseveralspecificwaysofchangingbehavioranddevelopingleadership.

Behaviorchangeeffortsaremostsuccessfulifsomeformalsystemorprocessofbehavioralchangeisputintoplace.

Thesesystemsincludeactionlearning,developmentplanning,informalandformalcoaching,andmentorships.

Actionlearninginvolvesusingrealworkexperienceasthecontextforleadershipdevelopment.

Developmentplanningistheprocessofpinpointingdevelopmentneeds,creatingdevelopmentplans,implementingplans,andreflectingonandrevisingplansregularly.

Organizationswithformaldevelopmentsystemsarelikelytorealizegreaterbehavioralchangesthaninformalones.

Leaderscancreatedevelopmentplansforthemselves,andalsohelptheirfollowerswithbehavioralchangethroughcoachingandmentoring.

DefinitionsofKeyTermsforChapter02

Action-observation-reflection(A-O-R)model:Leadershipdevelopmentisenhancedwhenpeopledosomething(act),notewhathappened(observe),andthinkaboutwhatoccurred(reflect).

Spiralofexperience:PictorialrepresentationofhowexperienceinteractswiththeAORmodel.

Perceptualset:Aphenomenonthatdrivesselectivityinwhatapersonattendsto;itcaninfluenceanyofthesensesandtheyhavethetendencytobiasperceptions(orwhatweattendto).

Attribution:Explanationsdevelopedforthebehaviorsoractionsweattendto.

Fundamentalattributionerror:Tendencytooverestimatethedispositionalcausesofbehaviorandunderestimatetheenvironmentalcauseswhenothersfail.

Self-servingbias:Tendencytomakeexternalattributions(i.e.,blameothers)forone’sownfailures,butmakeinternalattributions(i.e.,takecredit)forone’ssuccess.

Actor/observerdifference:Observersofacertainactionaremuchmorelikelytomakethefundamentalattributionerrorthantheactorhim/herself.

Self-fulfillingprophecy:Aphenomenonthatoccurswhenourexpectationsorpredictionsplayacausalroleinbringingabouttheeventswepredict(i.e.,Pygmalionintheclassroom).

Teacher—Mentor:Afundamentalarchetypeofaleaderwhocaresaboutdevelopingothersandworksbesidethemasarolemodel.

Father—Judge:Afundamentalarchetypeofaleaderwhoprovidesoversight,control,moralguidance,andcaringprotectiveness.

Warrior—Knight:Afundamentalarchetypeofaleaderwhotakesrisksandactioninacrisis.

Revolutionary—Crusader:Afundamentalarchetypeofaleaderwhochallengesthestatusquoandguidesadaptation.

Visionary—Alchemist:Afundamentalarchetypeofaleaderwhoimaginesposs