01GIS四十年的發(fā)展

地理信息系統(tǒng)II張曉祥博士水文水資源學院地理信息科學系Fall2009Xiaoxiang025-83787022第一講GIS四十年的發(fā)展和反思(GIS的思想史)Outline1.1GIS四十年的發(fā)展(GIS的思想史)GeographicalInformationSystem(GISystem)GeographicalInformationScience(GIScience)GeographicalInformationService(GIService)1.2世紀初的反思1.3

有影響的地理信息科學家1.1GIS四十年的發(fā)展原創(chuàng)思想GIS的定義軟件研發(fā)1.1.1地理信息系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展YearGISContext1963CanadaGeographicInformationSystem

1964HarvardLabforComputerGraphics&SpatialAnalysis

1966SYMAP WGS-661967USBureauofCensusDIME

1968

RelationaldatabasedefinedbyCodd1969ESRIfounded;Intergraphfounded;Laser-Scanfounded

1970AcronymGISbornatIGU/UNESCOconference

1971

ERT/Lansat1launched1973UKOrdnanceSurveystartsdigitizing

1974AutoCartoconferenceseries;Computers&GeosciencesUNIX1975

C++1978ERDASfounded

1980FEMAintegratesUSGS1:2mmappingintoseamlessdatabase

1981Computers,Environment&UrbanSystems;Arc/Infolaunched

1982

IBMPC8088chip19841stSpatialDataHandlingSymposiumRISCchip,WGS-841985

GPSoperational1986Burrough’sPrinciplesofGeographicalInformationSystemsforLandResourcesAssessment;MapInfofoundedSPOT1launched1987InternationalJournalofGeographicalInformationSystems;GIS/LISconferenceseries80386chip1988NCGIA;GISWorld,UKRRLinitiative

1989UKAssociationforGeographicInformation

1990

WWW1991USGSdigitaltoposeriescomplete.1stInternationalSymposiumonIntegratingGISandEnvironmentalModelling

1993GISresearchUKconferenceseriesPentiumchip1994OpenGISConsortiumHTML1995

Java19961stInternationalConferenceonGeoComputation;TransactionsinGIS

1997IJGISchanges‘System’to‘Science’;lastAutoCarto;GeographicalandEnvironmentalModelling

1998JournalofGeographicalSystems;lastGIS/LIS

AtimelineillustratingdevelopmentsinGISinrelationtobackground地理信息系統(tǒng)發(fā)展簡史RogerTomlinsontheFatherofGISIn1966,theCanadaGeographicInformationSystem(CGIS)wasinitiatedtoservetheneedsoftheCanadaLandInventorytomapcurrentlandusesandthecapabilityoftheseareasforagriculture,forestry,wildlifeandrecreation.RogerTomlinsonhadrecognizedsomeyearsearlierthatthemanualmapanalysistasksnecessaryforsuchaninventoryoversuchalargeareawouldbeprohibitivelyexpensiveandthatatechnologicalsolutionwasnecessary.Thesystemwasnotfullyoperationaluntil1971buthassubsequentlygrowntobecomeadigitalarchiveofsome10,000maps.Tomlinson(1960):應該將地圖轉化為數(shù)字形式的地圖，以便于計算機分析與處理。(1)原創(chuàng)思想Tomlinson(1960):應該將地圖轉化為數(shù)字形式的地圖，以便于計算機分析與處理。Technologicalinnovations:nopreviousexperienceinhowtostructuredatainternallynoprecedentforGISoperationsofoverlay,areameasurementexperimentalscannerhadtobebuiltformapinput(1)原創(chuàng)思想Tomlinson的貢獻IanMcHargReflectsonthePast,PresentandFutureofGISIanMcHarg(1920-2001)DesignwithNature<設計結合自然>McHarg,I.L.1969.Designwithnature.Doubleday&Co.,Inc,NewYork,198pp.

(1)原創(chuàng)思想McHarg的貢獻McHarg晚年回憶總結自己的貢獻:他將多個環(huán)境學科的科學家召集到一起，再加上社會科學家和經(jīng)濟學家，使他們?yōu)榻鉀Q一個共同的問題進行研究。在方法上用“千層餅”模式將這些知識和成果進行綜合及篩選來實現(xiàn)問題的解決。寫成《設計結合自然》一書，可以與美國女生物學家卡爾森的《寂靜的春天》媲美，讓人類珍視環(huán)境和大自然。(1)原創(chuàng)思想GeographicInformationSystem(GIS)isaninformationsystemabletoencode,store,transform,analyze,anddisplaygeospatialinformationhttp:///society.htmlGeographicInformationSystem(GIS)isasystemofcomputersoftware,hardwareanddata,andpersonneltohelpmanipulate,analyzeandpresentinformationthatistiedtoaspatiallocation.http:///whatisgis/Geographicinformationsystem(GIS)isasystemforinput,storage,manipulation,andoutputofgeographicinformationNCGIACoreCurriculuminGeographicInformationScienceData-centered(2)GIS的定義WhatisGISystem？ProfessionalGIS

ThedistinctivefeaturesofprofessionalGISincludedatacollectionandediting,databaseadministration,advancedgeoprocessingandanalysis,andotherspecialisttools,suchasESRIArcInfo,SamllworldGISDesktopGIS

DesktopGISfocusondatause,ratherthandatacreation,andprovideexcellenttoolsformakingmaps,reports,andcharts.Well-knowexamplesincludeESRIArcView,IntergraphGeoMedia,MapInforprofessionalHand-heldGIS

Hand-heldGISarelightweightsystemsdesignedformobileandfielduse,suchasAutodeskOnsite,ESRIArcPadComponentGIS

ComponentGISaretoolkitsandusedbyknowledgeableprogrammerstocreatefocusedapplications.ExamplesincludeESRIMapObjectsandMapInfoMapX.GISviewer

GISviewerareabletodisplayandquerypopularfileformats,suchasESRIArcExplorer,Intergraph'sGeoMedia,andMapInfo'sProViewerInternetGIS

InternetGISfocusondisplayandqueryapplications,aswellasmaping.ExamplesincludeAutodestk

MapGuide,ESRIArcIMS,IntergraphGeoMediaWebMap,andMapInfoMapXtreme.

GeographicInformationSystemsandScienceLongley,Goodchild,etal2001(2)GIS的定義GIS的類型JackDangermondpresidentandfounder,ESRI

“OneofthebiggestshiftsinfocuscamewhenweintroducedArcInfoin1982.PriortothattimewewerebasicallydoingvariousGISprojectsusingourownin-housesoftwaretools.”“Withthereleaseofastrongproduct,webegantoleverageallofourprojectexperienceintoaproductthatwouldhelpotherorganizationsdowhatwedidinourprojectefforts.Thischangedeverything.”

gofromaservicescompanytoaproductcompany!(3)軟件研發(fā)哈佛大學設計學院對GIS的貢獻軟件開發(fā)1965年，世界上第一個完整的GIS軟件；SYMAP、CALFORM、SYMVU、POLYVRT、ODYSSEY、IMGRID、MacGIS等一批最早的軟件。人才培養(yǎng)IanMcHarg(1920-2001)Intergraph的DavidSintonESRI和ARC/INFO的創(chuàng)辦人JackDangermondERDAS的創(chuàng)辦人LawrieJordan和BruceRado……(3)軟件研發(fā)俞孔堅CarlSteinitz（卡爾·斯坦尼茲）

哈佛博士的GIS之路——夏建統(tǒng)哈佛大學設計學院的中國博士1.1.2地理信息系統(tǒng)發(fā)展趨勢趨勢1：Needbetterwaystorepresent,understand,manage,andcommunicateournaturalworld(需要表達、理解、管理我們這個世界并與之進行交流的更好的方式)趨勢2：data－information－knowledge(Exploration,Explanation,Prediction,Planning)(數(shù)據(jù)-信息-知識)趨勢3：TheGISystemneedstodisappearfromsight,tobecomeembeddedintask-specificsystems!GISystemtoGIService(miniature,mobile,public,person-centered……)GIS的小型化、移動化、公眾化、個人化趨勢1：Needbetterwaystorepresent,understand,manage,andcommunicateournaturalworldEmergingTechnologiesforEnterpriseGISJackDangermond,3Dec.2003HKProf.Christophe

Claramunt10Feb.2004CUHK趨勢2：data-information-knowledgeExploration,Explanation,Prediction,Planning

趨勢3：TheGISystemneedstodisappearfromsight,tobecomeembeddedintask-specificsystems!

toGIServiceminiature,mobile,public,person-centered……Becauseprogresshashistoricallyreliedonafragmentedgatheringofapproachesinheritedfromcartography,imposedbyhardware,orborrowedfromothercomputer-relatedfields,wearefacedwiththecurrentsituationinwhichincreasedfunctionalityhascharacteristicallybeenaccompaniedbyincreasedconceptualcomplexity,makingGISprogressivelymorenonintuitivefortheuser.RepresentationsofspaceandtimeDonnaJ.Peuquet,2002GIS的“拿來主義”出現(xiàn)的問題

——學生什么都要學，什么都學不精1.1.2地理信息科學GISystem的進一步發(fā)展與騰飛需要新的科學研究成果作為“源動力”！導致地理信息科學的產(chǎn)生WhatisGIScience？MichaelF.GoodchildNCGIA:GIScience

TheGISandSocietymeetingpromptedthechangefromgeographicinformation"systems"to"science."ProfessorMichaelGoodchildattheUniversityofCalifornia--SantaBarbaraisacknowledgedastheprogenitorofthisswitch.

InJulyof1990,MichaelF.GoodchildmadeakeynoteaddressaboutGIS-relatedresearchprioritiestotheSpatialDataHandlingconferenceinZurich,Switzerland,thefourthconferenceunderthattitle.Goodchild’stalkwasentitled“SpatialInformationScience.”TheaddresswassubsequentlypublishedintheInternationalJournalofGeographicinformationScience(IJGIS)underthemodifiedtitle“GeographicInformationScience”(Goodchild,1990)thefivebulletsofNSFforNCGIA:Spatialanalysisandspatialstatistics;Spatialrelationsanddatabasestructure;

Artificialintelligenceandexpertsystems;Visualization;Social,economic,andinstitutionalissues.Theideathattheremightbeanacademicfieldofstudy,ascience,behindGISsoftwaretechnology,cameinthe

1980s!1988,theU.S.NationalScienceFoundationestablishedtheNationalCenterforGeographicInformationandAnalysis(NCGIA),aconsortiumofthreeinstitutionsdedicatedtobasicresearchandeducationingeographicinformationscienceanditsrelatedtechnologies,includinggeographicinformationsystems(GIS):theUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbara,theStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo,andtheUniversityofMaine.http:///(NCGIA,1988)DatacollectionandmeasurementDiscretization:generalization,abstraction,approximation.GPS,map,orremotesensing?DatacaptureSpatialstatisticsDatamodelingandtheoriesofspatialdataDatastructures,algorithmsandprocessesDisplayAnalyticaltoolsInstitutional,managerialandethicalissues“thecontentofgeographicinformationscience”,underthefollowingeightheadings

:M.F.Goodchild,Geographicalinformationscience,IJGIS6(1):31-45,1992(Goodchild,1992)

TheUniversityConsortiumforGeographicInformationScience(UCGIS).AfoundingmeetinginBoulder,Colorado,inDecember1994:(美國大學地理信息科學聯(lián)盟，UCGIS)UCGISisdedicatedtothedevelopmentanduseoftheories,methods,technology,anddataforunderstandinggeographicprocesses,relationships,andpatterns.Thetransformationofgeographicdataintousefulinformationiscentraltogeographicinformationscience.

(UCGIS,1994)MultidisciplinaryScopeoftheUCGISCARTOGRAPHYCOGNITIVESCIENCECOMPUTERSCIENCEENGINEERINGandLANDSURVEYINGENVIRONMENTALSCIENCESGEODETICSCIENCEGEOGRAPHYLANDSCAPEARCHITECTURELAWandPUBLICPOLICYREMOTESENSINGandPHOTOGRAMMETRYSTATISTICSToemphasizethemultidisciplinarynatureofGISandtheneedforbalanceandcooperationamongthedisciplineslistedbelow(andothers):http:///(UCGIS,1994)InJun1996,UCGISdelegatesmettodetermineresearchprioritiesfortheneworganization,andattheendofthemeetingendorsed10researchpriorities

1.SpatialDataAcquisitionandIntegration2.

DistributedComputing3.

ExtensionstoGeographicRepresentation4.

CognitionofGeographicInformation5.

InteroperabilityofGeographicInformation6.

Scale7.

SpatialAnalysisinaGISEnvironment8.ThefutureoftheSpatialInformationInfrastructure9.

UncertaintyinSpatialDataandGIS-basedAnalysis10.

GISandSociety(UCGIS,1996)GeographicinformationscienceisthesciencebehindthetechnologyconsidersfundamentalquestionsraisedbytheuseofsystemsandtechnologiesisthescienceneededtokeeptechnologyatthecuttingedgeNCGIACoreCurriculuminGeographicInformationScience(1997)

/giscc/units/u002/(NCGIACC,1997)“GeographicInformationScience(GIScience)isthebasicresearchfieldthatseekstoredefinegeographicconceptsandtheiruseinthecontextofgeographicinformationsystems.GISciencealsoexaminestheimpactsofGISonindividualsandsociety,andtheinfluencesofsocietyonGIS.GISciencere-examinessomeofthemostfundamentalthemesintraditionalspatiallyorientedfieldsuchasgeography,cartography,andgeodesy,whileincorporatingmorerecentdevelopmentsincognitiveandinformationscience.Italsooverlapswithanddrawsfrommorepsychology,andcontributestoprogressinthosefields.Itsupportsresearchinpoliticalscienceandanthropology,anddrawsonthosefieldsinstudiesofgeographicinformationandsociety.”1999,workshopheldbyNationalScienceFoundation

(NSF,1999)Geographicinformationscience:definingthefieldDavidM.Mark,DepartmentofGeography,universityofBuffalo

FoundationsofGeographicinformationscienceEditedbyMattDuckham,MichaelF.GoodchildandMichaelF.WorboysTaylor&Francis,London,2003

Ontologyandrepresentation

Ontologyofthegeographicdomain

provideaconsistentformaltheoryoftokens(instances)andtypes(kinds)intherealworld,theirrelationships,andtheprocessesthatmodifythem

抽象出共同理解的術語及其相互關系的定義Formalrepresentationofgeographicinformationfindingdigitalformalismsthatcancapturetheessenceofgeographicphenomena(Mark,2003)ComputationQualitativespatialreasoningComputationalgeometry

Efficientindexing,retrieval,andsearchingeographicdatabases

Spatialstatistics

ComputationOthergeocomputationtopics

dataminingandknowledgediscover(數(shù)據(jù)挖掘與知識發(fā)現(xiàn))neuralnetworks(神經(jīng)網(wǎng)絡)artificialintelligence(人工智能)Heuristics(啟發(fā)式算法)fuzzycomputation(模糊計算)Fractals(分形)genericalgorithms(遺傳算法)cellularautomata(元胞自動機)parallelcomputing(并行計算)

Cognition

Cognitivemodelsofgeographicphenomena(humanperception,learning,memory,reasoningandcommunicationofandaboutgeographicphenomena)HumaninteractionwithgeographicinformationandtechnologyApplications,institutions,andsociety

10)Acquisitionofgeographicdata---Geomatics11)Qualityofgeographicinformation12)Spatialanalysis13)Geographicinformation,institutions,andsocietyCrosscuttingresearchthemes

14)Time15)ScaleStefanakis認為地理實體具有六個維度：Identifier、Spatialdata、Thematicdata、Temporaldata、Dataquality、Multimediadata。地理信息的6個維度(據(jù)Stefanakis等，1999改)關于地理信息的質量的研究http://www.uel.ac.uk/geo-information/Geo-InformationScience:

Concernsgenericissuesinthehandlingandanalysisofgeo-spatialdatasuchasdatastructures,visualisation,spatialdataanalysis,spatialdataqualityandthepropagationofuncertainty.

Geo-InformationSystems:

Concernstheuseofspecialistsoftwareinmappinganddataminingapplicationsinsuchdiverseareasastheenvironment,crime,health,education,transportandbusiness.

Geo-InformationEngineering:

Concernsthedesignandconstructionofspecificspatialinformationsolutionssuchasinpredictivemodelling,spatialdecisionsupportandlocation-basedservices.

GIService:地理信息進萬家PartII

世紀初的反思李德仁的反思李德仁(1997)."關于地理信息理論的思考."武漢測繪科技大學學報22(2):93-95,110.觀點：GIS的技術驅動、應用驅動的兩大特點絲毫不影響GIS的研究特性和逐步成為一門學科。GIS有沒有理論？(有)(李德仁,1997)哪些地理信息理論問題需要解決？(李德仁,1997)1）空間數(shù)據(jù)在計算機中的表示2）地理空間數(shù)據(jù)的采集3）數(shù)據(jù)的精度4）大容量數(shù)據(jù)的存取問題5）數(shù)據(jù)分析6）空間數(shù)據(jù)的表達和顯示7）變化發(fā)現(xiàn)與空間數(shù)據(jù)庫的更新8）從GIS數(shù)據(jù)庫中發(fā)現(xiàn)知識9）數(shù)據(jù)的可交換性、安全性與保密性10）人機交互界面11）成本與效益12）系統(tǒng)安裝運行如何建立地理信息理論？3.1要充分認識到計算機技術進步帶來的機遇3.2要打破傳統(tǒng)地圖數(shù)據(jù)庫對GIS發(fā)展形成的框框3.3要充分發(fā)現(xiàn)現(xiàn)代數(shù)學理論和工具在地理信息理論研究中的作用超圖理論、分形維、數(shù)學形態(tài)學、遺傳算法、神經(jīng)元網(wǎng)絡等GIS研究工作者必須十分重視在GIS理論研究中應用新的數(shù)學理論。(李德仁,1997)其它反思的人王家耀\郭仁忠\陳順清等，建議大家去查查這些人的早年文獻。充分認識3S集成的重要性，建議GIS專業(yè)的同學不要僅僅