新世紀(jì)研究生公共英語教材B-11-13單元

B:第九單元AnimalEmotionsLauraTangleySheerjoy.Romanticlove.Thepainofmourning.

Scientistssaypetsandwildcreatureshavefeelings,too.1.SwimmingoffthecoastofArgentina,afemalerightwhalesinglesoutjustoneofthesuitorsthatarehotlypursuingher.Aftermating,thetwocetaceanslingersidebyside,strokingoneanotherwiththeirflippersandfinallyrollingtogetherinwhatlookslikeanembrace.Thewhalesthendepart,flipperstouching,andswimslowlysidebyside,divingandsurfacinginperfectunisonuntiltheydisappearfromsight.2.InTanzania,primatologistsstudyingchimpanzeebehaviorrecordedthedeathofFlo,atroop’s50-year-oldmatriarch.Throughoutthefollowingday,Flo’sson,Flint,sitsbesidehismother’slifelessbody,occasionallytakingherhandandwhimpering.Overthenextfewweeks,Flintgrowsincreasinglylistless,withdrawingfromthetroop—despitehissiblings’effortstobringhimback–andrefusingfood.ThreeweeksafterFlo’sdeath,theformerlyhealthyyoungchimpisdead,too.3.Agrief-strickenchimpanzee?Leviathansinlove?Mostpeople,raisedonDisneyversionsofsentientandpassionatebeasts,wouldsaythatthesetales,bothtrue,simplyconfirmtheirsuspicionsthatanimalscanfeelintense,humanlikeemotions.Fortheirpart,thenation’s61millionpetownersneednoconvincingatallthatpetdogsandcatscanfeelangry,morose,elated—evenjealousorembarrassed.Recentstudies,infieldsasdistantasethologyandneurobiology,aresupportingthispopularbelief.Otherevidenceismerelyanecdotal,especiallyforpets—dogsthatbecomedepressed,orevendie,afterlosingabelovedcompanion,forinstance.Buttheanecdote—orcasestudyinscientificparlance—hasnowachievedsomerespectabilityamongresearcherswhostudyanimalbehavior.AsUniversityofColoradobiologistMarcBekoffsays,“Thepluralofanecdoteisdata.”4.Still,theideaofanimalsfeelingemotionsremainscontroversialamongmanyscientists.Researchers’skepticismisfueledinpartbytheirprofessionalaversiontoanthropomorphism,theverynonscientifictendencytoattributehumanqualitiestonon-humans.Manyscientistsalsosaythatitisimpossibletoproveanimalshaveemotionsusingstandardscientificmethods—repeatableobservationsthatcanbemanipulatedincontrolledexperiments—leadingthemtoconcludethatsuchfeelingsmustnotexist.Today,however,amidmountingevidencetothecontrary,“thetideisturningradicallyandrapidly,”saysBekoff,whoisattheforefrontofthismovement.5.Eventhemoststridentskepticsofanimalpassionagreethatmanycreaturesexperiencefear—whichsomescientistsdefineasa“primary”emotionthatcontrastswith“secondary”emotionssuchasloveandgrief.Unlikethesemorecomplexfeelings,fearisinstinctive,theysay,andrequiresnoconsciousthought.Essentialtoescapepredatorsandotherdangers,fear—anditspredictableflight,fight,orfreezeresponses—seemstobehard-wiredintomanyspecies.Younggeesethathaveneverbeforeseenapredator,forexample,willrunforcoverifahawk-shapedsilhouettepassesoverhead.Theshapeofanonpredatorybird,ontheotherhand,elicitsnosuchresponse.6.Butbeyondsuchinstinctualemotionsandtheirpredictablebehavioralresponses,thepossibilityofmorecomplexanimalfeelings—thosethatentailmentalprocessing—isdifficulttodemonstrate.“Ican’tevenprovethatanotherhumanbeingisfeelinghappyorsad,”saysBekoff,“butIcandeducehowthey’refeelingthroughbodylanguageandfacialexpression.”Asascientistwhohasconductedfieldstudiesofcoyotes,foxes,andothercaninesforthepastthreedecades,Bekoffalsobelieveshecanaccuratelytellwhattheseanimalsarefeelingbyobservingtheirbehavior.Headdsthatanimalemotionsmayactuallybemoreknowablethanthoseofhumans,becausetheydon’t“filter”theirfeelingsthewaywedo.7.Yetbecausefeelingsareintangible,andsotoughtostudyscientifically,“mostresearchersdon’tevenwanttotalkaboutanimalemotions,”saysJaakPanksepp,aneuroscientistatBowlingGreenStateUniversityinOhioandauthorofAffectiveNeuroscience.Withinhisfield,Pankseppisarareexception,whobelievesthatsimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimalssuggestthatatleastsomecreatureshavetruefeelings.“Imaginewherewe’dbeinphysicsifwehadn’tinferredwhat’sinsidetheatom,”saysPanksepp.“Mostofwhatgoesoninnatureisinvisible,yetwedon’tdenythatitexists.”8.Thenewcaseforanimalemotionscomesinpartfromthegrowingacceptabilityoffieldobservations,particularlywhentheyaretakeninaggregate.Thelatestcontributiontothisbodyofknowledgeisanewbook,TheSmileofaDolphin,whichpresentspersonalreportsfrommorethan50researcherswhohavespenttheircareersstudyinganimals—fromcats,dogs,bears,andchimpstobirds,iguanas,andfish.EditedbyBekoff,whosaysitwillfinally“l(fā)egitimize”researchonanimalemotions,thevolumehasalreadygarneredscientificattention,includingaSmithsonianInstitutionsymposiumonthesubject.9.Oneofthemostobviousanimalemotionsispleasure.Anyonewhohaseverheldapurringcatorbeengreetedbyabounding,barking,tail-waggingdogknowsthatanimalsoftenappeartobehappy.Beastlyjoyseemsparticularlyapparentwhentheanimalsareplayingwithoneanotherorsometimes,inthecaseofpets,withpeople.10.Virtuallyallyoungmammals,aswellassomebirds,play,asdoadultsofmanyspeciessuchasourown.Youngdolphins,forinstance,routinelychaseeachotherthroughthewaterlikefrolicsomepuppiesandhavebeenobservedridingthewakesofboatslikesurfers.PrimatologistJaneGoodall,whohasstudiedchimpanzeesinTanzaniaforfourdecades,saysthatchimps“chase,somersault,andpirouettearoundoneanotherwiththeabandonofchildren.”InColorado,Bekoffoncewatchedanelkracebackandforthacrossapatchofsnow—eventhoughtherewasplentyofbaregrassnearby—leapingandtwistingitsbodyinmidaironeachpass.Thoughrecentresearchsuggeststhatplaymayhelpyoungstersdevelopskillsneededinadulthood,Bekoffsaysthere’snoquestionthatit’salsofun.“Animalsatplayaresymbolsoftheunfetteredjoyoflife,”hesays11.Griefalsoseemstobecommoninthewild,particularlyfollowingthedeathofamate,parent,offspring,orevenclosecompanion.Femalesealionswitnessingtheirpupsbeingeatenbykillerwhalesareknowntoactuallywail.Whenagoose,whichmatesforlife,losesitspartner,thebird’sheadandbodydroopdejectedly.Goodall,whosawtheyoungchimpFlintstarveafterhismotherdied,maintainsthattheanimal“diedofgrief.”12.Elephantsmaybenature’sbest-knownmourners.Scientistsstudyingthesebehemothshavereportedcountlesscasesofelephantstryingtorevivedeadordyingfamilymembers,aswellasstandingquietlybesideananimal’sremainsformanydays,periodicallyreachingoutandtouchingthebodywiththeirtrunks.KenyanbiologistJoycePoole,whohasstudiedAfricanelephantssince1976,saystheseanimals’behaviortowardtheirdead“l(fā)eavesmewithlittledoubtthattheyexperiencedeepemotionsandhavesomeunderstandingaboutdeath.”13.Butthere’s“hard”scientificevidenceforanimalfeelingsaswell.Scientistswhostudythebiologyofemotions,afieldstillinitsinfancy,arediscoveringmanysimilaritiesbetweenthebrainsofhumansandotheranimals.Inanimalsstudiedsofar,includinghumans,emotionsseemtoarisefromancientpartsofthebrainthatarelocatedbelowthecortex,regionsthathavebeenconservedacrossmanyspeciesthroughoutevolution.14.Themostimportantemotionalsiteidentifiedsofaristheamygdala,analmond-shapestructureinthecenterofthebrain.Workingwithrats,neuroscientistshavediscoveredthatstimulatingacertainpartoftheamygdalainducesastateofintensefear.Ratswithdamagedamygdalas,ontheotherhand,donotshownormalbehavioralresponsestodanger(suchasfreezingorrunning)orthephysiologicalchangesassociatedwithfear—higherheartrateandbloodpressure,forexample.15.Inhumans,brain-imagingstudiesshowthatwhenpeopleexperiencefear,theiramygdalas,too,areactivated.Andjustliketherats,peoplewhoseamygdalasaredamagedbyaccidentordiseaseseemunabletobeafraidwhenthesituationwarrantsit.Inhumansandrats,atleast,amygdalasare“basicallywiredthesameway,”saysNewYorkUniversityneuroscientistJosephLeDoux,whoselabconductedmuchoftheratresearch.Headdsthatbeyondfear,“theevidenceislessclear,buttheamygdalaisimplicatedinotheremotionsaswell.”16.Thecaseforanimalemotionsisalsobolsteredbyrecentstudiesofbrainchemistry.StevenSiviy,abehavioralneuroscientistatGettysburgCollegeinPennsylvania,hasfoundthatwhenratsplay,theirbrainsreleasecopiousamountsofdopamine,aneurochemicalthatisassociatedwithpleasureandexcitementinhumans.Inoneexperiment,Siviyplacedpairsofratsinadistinctiveplexiglasschamberandallowedthemtoplay.Afteraweek,hecouldputoneanimalaloneinthechamberand,anticipatingitsupcomingplaysession,itwouldbecome“veryactive,vocalizing,andpacingbackandforthwithexcitement.”ButwhenSiviygavethesameanimaladrugthatblocksdopamine,allsuchactivitycametoahalt.NeuroscientistPanksepphasfoundevidencethatratsatplayalsoproduceopiates–chemicalsthat,likedopamine,arethoughttobeinvolvedwithpleasureinpeople.17.Anotherchemical,thehormoneoxytocin,isassociatedwithbothsexualactivityandmaternalbondinginpeople.Itisreleased,forexample,whenmothersarenursingtheirinfants.Nowitlooksasthoughthesamehormoneaffectsattachmentamonganimals,atleastinthecaseofamouselikerodentcalledtheprairievole.Toinvestigateoxytocin’sroleinsocialbonding,UniversityofMarylandneuroscientistC.SueCartertargetedthevolebecauseitisoneofthefewmammalspeciesknowntobemonogamous.Shefoundthatfemales,whonormallyspendaboutadayselectingamatefromapoolofeagermales,willchooseonewithinanhour—oftenthefirstmaletheysee—iftheyhavefirstreceivedaninjectionofoxytocin.Volesgivenadrugthatblocksoxytocin,however,willnotselectamate,nomatterhowmuchtimetheyhave.Carterconcludesthatpairbondinginvolesreliesatleastinpartonoxytocin,whichproducesbehaviorthatlooksmuchlikepeoplewhoare“fallinginlove.”18.Butisitlove,really?BerndWelsig,theTexasA&MUniversitybiologistwhoobservedamorousrightwhalesoffthecoastofArgentina,believesthat,asascientist,“Ishouldprobablycallthiseventamereexampleofan‘a(chǎn)lternativematingstrategy.’“ButWelsigstillentertainsthepossibilitythatthecetaceansbehavedthewaytheydidbecause“theywerethe‘right’rightwhalesforeachother.”19.Skepticsremainunconvinced.“Awhalemaybehaveasifit’sinlove,butyoucan’tprovewhatit’sfeeling,ifanything,”saysneuroscientistLeDoux,authorofTheEmotionalBrain.Hemaintainsthatthequestionoffeelingsboilsdowntowhetherornotanimalsareconscious.Andthoughanimals“mayhavesnapshotsofself-awareness,”hesays,“themoviewecallconsciousnessisnotthere.”RichardDavidson,aneuroscientistattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison,agreesthathigherprimates,includingapesandchimps,aretheonlyanimalsthathavedemonstratedself-consciousnesssofar.Still,hebelievesthatthereareothercreaturesthat“mayatleasthaveantecedentsoffeelings.”20.Orprobablymore,sayBekoffandhiscolleagues.Theirmostconvincingargument,perhaps,comesfromthetheoryofevolution,widelyacceptedbybiologistsofallstripes.Citingsimilaritiesinthebrainanatomyandchemistryofhumansandotheranimals,neuroscientistSiviyasks:“Ifyoubelieveinevolutionbynaturalselection,howcanyoubelievethatfeelingssuddenlyappeared,outoftheblue,withhumanbeings?”Goodallsaysscientistswhouseanimalstostudythehumanbrain,thendenythatanimalshavefeelings,are“illogical.”21.Intheend,whatdifferencedoesitreallymake?Accordingtomanyscientists,resolvingthedebateoveranimalemotionscouldturnouttobemuchmorethananintellectualexercise.Ifanimalsdoindeedexperienceawiderangeoffeelings,ithasprofoundimplicationsforhowhumansandanimalswillinteractinthefuture.Bekoff,forone,hopesthatgreaterunderstandingofwhatanimalsarefeelingwillspurmorestringentrulesonhowanimalsshouldbetreated,everywherefromzoosandcircusestofarmsandbackyards.22.Butifthereiscontinuitybetweentheemotionallivesofhumansandotheranimals,whereshouldscientistsdrawtheline?MichelCabanac,aphysiologistatLavalUniversityinQuebec,believesthatconsciousnessarosewhenanimalsbegantoexperiencephysicalpleasureanddispleasure.Inexperimentswithiguanas,hediscoveredthattheanimalsshowphysiologicalchangesthatareassociatedwithpleasureinmammals—ariseinbodytemperatureandheartrate—whereasfrogsandfishdonot.Heproposesthatemotionsevolvedsomewherebetweenthefirstamphibiansandreptiles.Yetevenenthusiastsdon’tascribeemotionstotheverybottomendofthefoodchain.SaysBekoff:“We’renotgoingtotalkaboutjealousspongesandembarrassedmosquitoes.”

動物的情感勞拉·坦利非常的開心。浪漫的愛情。悲慟的哀悼?？茖W(xué)家說寵物和野生動物也有情感。1.一只在阿根廷海岸附近的水域中游動的露脊鯨，在眾多熱烈追求她的求偶者中只選出一名幸運兒?！巴昊椤敝?，兩頭露脊鯨并排在水中徜徉，它們用鰭肢相互撫摩，最后又一起在水中滾動，看上去就像在互相擁抱。然后，兩頭露脊鯨開始游向遠(yuǎn)方，鰭肢相互觸摸，慢慢并排游動，一會潛入水中，一會又浮出水面，它們動作完美和諧，直至最終在視線中消失。2.在坦桑尼亞，致力于研究黑猩猩行為的靈長類動物學(xué)家記錄了一個黑猩猩群落中享年50歲的“女族長”弗洛死后發(fā)生的一些事情。弗洛的兒子弗林特第二天一整天都坐在母親的尸體旁邊，有時還會抓住她的手發(fā)出幾聲嗚咽。在此后的幾個星期里，弗林特的情緒越來越低落，他離群索居并且不再進食，盡管他的兄弟姐妹設(shè)法想讓他回到群體中來。終于，在弗洛死后的第3個星期，原本年輕健康的黑猩猩弗林特也死了。3.悲傷過度的黑猩猩？墜入情網(wǎng)的海洋巨獸？很多人，由于深受迪斯尼卡通片中感性多情的動物形象的影響，會說這兩個真實的故事更加證實了他們認(rèn)為動物有人類般強烈情感的看法。從他們的角度來看，全國六千一百萬擁有寵物的人完全不需要提供什么證據(jù)來證實寵物狗和寵物貓會生氣、郁悶、得意洋洋——甚至?xí)刀驶蚶Ь健Ｗ罱趧游镄袨閷W(xué)和神經(jīng)生物學(xué)之類的邊緣學(xué)科的研究證實了這種普遍看法。其他的證據(jù)只是些軼事趣聞，特別是一些有關(guān)寵物的事，例如狗會在失去心愛的同伴后，變得沮喪，甚至死去。但是軼事趣聞——或用科學(xué)的術(shù)語稱之為案例研究——現(xiàn)在已經(jīng)獲得了研究動物行為的研究人員的重視。正如科羅拉多大學(xué)的生物學(xué)家馬克·貝科夫所說：“大量的軼事趣聞就是數(shù)據(jù)?！?.但是，許多科學(xué)家仍然對動物也有情感的觀點持有異議。研究人員之所以會表示疑心，局部原因是他們出于職業(yè)習(xí)慣討厭擬人論，因為他們認(rèn)為這是一種將人類的特性強加在非人類生物身上的毫無科學(xué)根據(jù)的主觀傾向。許多科學(xué)家還認(rèn)為用標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的科學(xué)方法〔在受控實驗環(huán)境下可進行重復(fù)觀察〕是無法證明動物是有情感的——這使他們得出結(jié)論，認(rèn)為這些所謂的動物情感一定不存在。但是動物情感論的積極倡導(dǎo)者貝科夫指出，如今面對越來越多的相反證據(jù)，“這場運動的潮流正在根本性地迅速轉(zhuǎn)向”。5.甚至連那些對動物情感論持絕對疑心態(tài)度的人也成認(rèn)，許多動物有恐懼感——一些科學(xué)家認(rèn)為，恐懼是與愛和悲傷等“中級”情感相對的“初級”情感。他們認(rèn)為，與較為復(fù)雜的“中級”情感相比，恐懼是一種本能，它不需要任何有意識的思維?？謶旨捌淇梢灶A(yù)見的逃跑、搏斗或者呆住不動的反響，是逃避食肉動物和其他危險所必需的，它看起來好似是許多動物與生俱來的本領(lǐng)。例如，以前從未見過食肉動物的小鵝如果看到形狀像老鷹一樣的黑影從頭頂掠過就會馬上跑去尋找藏身處。而另一方面，非食肉鳥的形狀就不會引發(fā)這樣的反響。6.但是，除了這些具有本能性質(zhì)的情感及其可以預(yù)見的行為反響之外，科學(xué)家很難證明動物可能擁有更為復(fù)雜的情感，即那些必需有心理活動過程的情感。貝科夫說：“我甚至不能證實另一個人是快樂還是悲傷，但我可以通過肢體語言和臉部表情推論出他〔們〕的情感?！弊鳛閷擦掷?、狐貍及其他犬科動物進行長達(dá)30年實地研究的科學(xué)家，貝科夫還認(rèn)為自己可以通過觀察這些動物的行為準(zhǔn)確地說出他們的感受。他又指出，了解動物的感情事實上可能比了解人類的感情更容易，因為它們不會像人類那樣對情感進行“過濾”。7.但是《情感神經(jīng)學(xué)》一書的作者、俄亥俄州立堡林·格林大學(xué)神經(jīng)學(xué)學(xué)家雅克·潘克塞普指出，因為感情是一種無形的東西，而且很難用科學(xué)手段進行研究，“所以大多數(shù)研究人員甚至不愿意談?wù)搫游锴楦袉栴}”。而潘克塞普在他的研究領(lǐng)域里是一個非常少見的例外，他認(rèn)為，人類大腦和其他動物大腦之間的相似之處說明，至少某些動物擁有真正的感情。潘克塞普說：“想象一下，如果我們沒有推測出原子中的物質(zhì)，那我們的物理學(xué)會是什么樣的。在自然中大局部事物的進展是看不見的，然而我們并不否認(rèn)它的存在?！?.對動物情感的接受之所以會出現(xiàn)新的局面，局部原因是有越來越多的人愿意接受研究人員取得的實地觀察結(jié)果，特別是當(dāng)從總體角度看待這些結(jié)果時。一本名為《海豚的微笑》的新書為增加動物情感方面的知識做出了新的奉獻(xiàn)，該書收錄了50多名研究人員撰寫的個人報告。這些研究人員將自己的整個職業(yè)生涯都傾注在對貓、狗、熊、黑猩猩、鳥、鬣蜥和魚等動物的研究。該書的編輯貝科夫認(rèn)為，這本書最終會使動物情感的研究變得“合法”。而這本新書也確實引起了科學(xué)界的關(guān)注——其中，史密森氏學(xué)會就舉行了一次以動物情感為主題的研討會。9.動物最顯而易見的情感之一就是快樂。養(yǎng)過會發(fā)出咕嚕聲的小貓，或者受到過邊跳邊叫、搖著尾巴的小狗歡送的人，就知道動物看起來常常十分快樂。動物相互嬉戲的時候，或有時跟人一起玩耍時〔就寵物而言〕，它們的快樂好似會變得特別明顯。10.事實上，所有幼小的哺乳動物和某些鳥類都會嬉戲玩耍，正如很多種類的成年動物一樣，包括人類也是如此。例如，小海豚就像愛鬧著玩的小狗，常常在水中互相追逐。人們常?？吹剿鼈兿駴_浪運發(fā)動般追逐在船后的浪花上。靈長類動物學(xué)家簡·古多爾曾經(jīng)在坦桑尼亞對黑猩猩進行了40年的研究，他說黑猩猩會“孩子般盡情地追逐、翻跟頭、踮著腳尖相互旋轉(zhuǎn)”。有一次，貝科夫在科羅拉多觀察到一只麋鹿來來回回地跑著穿越一小塊雪地，盡管邊上就有無雪的草地。它每次跨躍都要跳起來并在半空扭動著軀體。貝科夫說雖然近來的研究說明嬉戲玩耍會幫助小動物培養(yǎng)成年所需要的技巧，而毫無疑問的是，它也會帶來快樂。他還說：“玩耍的動物是無拘無束生活快樂的象征?！?1.在野生動物中，悲傷似乎也很常見，尤其是在失去了配偶、雙親、幼崽，甚至是親密同伴的時候。比方，當(dāng)母海獅目擊了自己的小海獅被逆戟鯨吃掉時，會發(fā)出哀號。一生只有一個配偶的天鵝失去配偶時，會沮喪地垂著頭和身體。古多爾親眼看到小黑猩猩弗林特在母親死后餓死，他堅持說小黑猩猩是“死于悲傷”。12.大象可能是大自然最著名的哀悼者了。研究這些龐然大物的科學(xué)家的報告中有大量的事實陳述了大象試圖使死去的或?qū)⒁廊サ募彝コ蓡T復(fù)活，還會很多天靜靜地站在尸體旁，不時地伸出長鼻觸動一下尸體。肯尼亞生物學(xué)家喬伊斯·普爾從1976年以來就研究非洲大象，他說，這些動物對待死去的動物的行為“讓我?guī)缀鹾敛灰尚牡卣J(rèn)為，它們體驗著深切的感情并對死亡有所理解。”13.有一些“確鑿的”科學(xué)證據(jù)也可以證明動物有感情。致力于情感生物學(xué)〔一個新生的科學(xué)領(lǐng)域〕研究的科學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)，人腦與其它動物的大腦之間存在著許多相似之處?？茖W(xué)家在到目前為止對動物〔包括人類〕的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)，情感看起來好似是在大腦一些較為“古老”的區(qū)域中產(chǎn)生的，這些區(qū)域位于大腦皮層以下，它們在許多物種的進化過程中都得以保存下來。14.目前已經(jīng)被科學(xué)家識別出來的最重要的情感區(qū)域，是大腦中的扁桃體，這是一個位于大腦中央的杏仁狀結(jié)構(gòu)。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家通過在老鼠身上進行的實驗，發(fā)現(xiàn)刺激扁桃體某個特定的局部會導(dǎo)致實驗鼠處于一種極度恐懼的狀態(tài)。在另一方面，扁桃體遭到破壞的實驗鼠在遇到危險時，既不會表現(xiàn)出正常的行為反響〔比方呆住或者逃跑〕，也不會出現(xiàn)與恐懼聯(lián)系在一起的生理變化——如心跳加快和血壓升高。15.利用成像技術(shù)對人腦進行的研究說明，當(dāng)人類感到恐懼時，大腦中的扁桃核也會被激活。與實驗鼠一樣，由于意外事故或疾病而導(dǎo)致扁桃核受損的人似乎在面對危險時也無法感到恐懼。在實驗室進行了大量鼠類研究的紐約大學(xué)神經(jīng)學(xué)學(xué)家約瑟夫·勒杜指出，至少人類和老鼠的扁桃核“根本上采用了相同的‘布線方式’”。他又補充說，除恐懼外，“有證據(jù)說明，扁桃核與其他情感也有關(guān)系，但是這些證據(jù)不像證明扁桃核與恐懼有關(guān)的證據(jù)那樣明確?！?6.動物情感論還得到了最近進行的大腦化學(xué)研究的支持。賓夕法尼亞葛底斯堡學(xué)院行為神經(jīng)科學(xué)家史蒂文·西維發(fā)現(xiàn)，老鼠在玩耍的時候，它的大腦會釋放出大量的多巴胺——人類的快樂和興奮等情感就與這種神經(jīng)化學(xué)物質(zhì)有關(guān)。在一項實驗中，西維把一對對的實驗鼠放在了特殊的樹脂玻璃“房子”中，然后讓它們盡情玩耍。一星期后，他又把一只實驗鼠單獨放在“房子”里，期待著馬上就可以再好好地玩上一段時間的實驗鼠變得“非?；顫?，它不斷地發(fā)出叫聲并且興奮地來回跑動”。但是當(dāng)西維給這只實驗鼠喂食了一種抑制多巴胺的藥物以后，所有的此類活動都全部停止了。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家潘克塞普已經(jīng)找到證據(jù)證明，老鼠在玩耍的過程中體內(nèi)還會產(chǎn)生多種鴉片劑——科學(xué)家認(rèn)為這些化學(xué)物質(zhì)與多巴胺一樣，也與人類的快樂情緒有關(guān)。17.另一種化學(xué)物質(zhì)荷爾蒙催產(chǎn)素與人類的性活動和母性有關(guān)。例如，母親培育嬰兒時體內(nèi)就會釋放出催產(chǎn)素?，F(xiàn)在看來這種激素好似對動物之間的相互依戀也有影響，至少在一種與老鼠十分相似的嚙齒類動物草原田鼠身上是這樣。為了研究催產(chǎn)素對社會依附關(guān)系的作用，馬里蘭大學(xué)神經(jīng)科學(xué)家C·休·卡特選擇了草原田鼠作為她的研究對象，因為草原田鼠是人們的實行“一夫一妻制”的為數(shù)不多的幾種哺乳動物之一。她發(fā)現(xiàn)母鼠一般會花一天的時間從一群熱切的公鼠中挑選出一只配偶，但是如果它們在選擇配偶之前注射了催產(chǎn)素的話，母鼠的擇偶時間就會縮短為一小時——而且常常會選擇它們看見的第一只公鼠。然而，如果母鼠服食了催產(chǎn)素抑制藥物，那么不管有多少時間它們也不會選擇配偶。卡特由此得出結(jié)論認(rèn)為，雌雄田鼠之間親密關(guān)系的形成至少局部原因是催產(chǎn)素，這種激素可以導(dǎo)致田鼠做出與“墜入愛河”的人非常相似的舉動。18.但這真是愛情嗎？曾經(jīng)對生活在阿根廷附近海域的“多情”露脊鯨進行過觀察的得克薩斯農(nóng)業(yè)和機械大學(xué)生物學(xué)家貝恩德·伍爾西格指出，作為一名科學(xué)家，“我很可能應(yīng)該將露脊鯨的行為僅僅稱作是“選擇性的交配策略”的一個例子”。但是他仍然認(rèn)為，露脊鯨之所以會有這種行為表現(xiàn)也有可能是因為“它們相互之間‘情投意合’”。19．對動物情感論持疑心態(tài)度的人仍然堅持自己的看法。《情感大腦》一書的作者，神經(jīng)科學(xué)家勒杜指出：“鯨也許會做出好似他們正在戀愛的舉動，但是你無法證明它的內(nèi)心感受，即使鯨有這種感受的話?！彼J(rèn)為動物情感問題歸根到底就是動物是否有意識的問題。他說，雖然動物“會有點滴的自我意識，但是我們所稱的意識圖像是沒有的。”威斯康星大學(xué)麥迪遜分校的神經(jīng)科學(xué)家理查德·戴維森認(rèn)為，類人猿和黑猩猩等比擬高級的靈長類動物是迄今為止唯一已經(jīng)說明出自我意識的動物。但是，他仍然認(rèn)為還有其他一些動物“也許至少擁有情感的前身”。20．貝科夫和他的同事認(rèn)為可能還不止如此。他們最令人信服的論點也許是從已經(jīng)為各學(xué)派的生物學(xué)家所普遍接受的進化論中推導(dǎo)出來的。神經(jīng)科學(xué)家西維根據(jù)人腦與其他動物大腦在解剖結(jié)構(gòu)和化學(xué)構(gòu)成方面存在的相似之處提出了這樣一個問題：“如果你認(rèn)為生物可以通過自然選擇不斷進化，那你怎么能夠相信人類在進化的過程中其情感是突如其來的呢？”古多爾認(rèn)為，那些先通過動物來研究人類的大腦，然后又否認(rèn)動物有感情的科學(xué)家的想法是“不合邏輯的”。21．最后，動物有沒有情感到底有什么重要性呢？許多科學(xué)家認(rèn)為解決動物情感爭論的意義也許遠(yuǎn)比一種學(xué)術(shù)活動重要得多。如果動物確實有各種各樣的情感，那么它將對人與動物今后會怎樣互動產(chǎn)生意義深遠(yuǎn)的影響。舉例來說，貝科夫就希望對動物的感情了解更多能促使人類在對待動物〔不管是在動物園和馬戲團還是在農(nóng)場和后院〕上有更嚴(yán)厲的規(guī)定。22．但是，如果人類和其他動物的感情生活之間存在著延續(xù)性，那么科學(xué)家應(yīng)該把人與動物的分界線劃在什么地方呢？魁北克拉瓦爾大學(xué)生理學(xué)家米歇爾·卡巴納克認(rèn)為，當(dāng)動物開始體驗身上的快樂和不快時，意識就產(chǎn)生了。在以鬣蜥為研究對象的實驗中，他發(fā)現(xiàn)這種動物表現(xiàn)出哺乳動物快樂時的生理變化——體溫升高和心跳加快——但是青蛙和魚卻沒有類似的變化。他提出，情感的進化發(fā)生在第一批兩棲動物與爬行動物出現(xiàn)之間的某個時期。但即使是非常熱衷于動物情感的人，也不會把情感與處于食物鏈最末端的生物聯(lián)系起來。貝科夫指出：“我們不會談?wù)摷刀实暮＞d和為難的蚊子?！?/p>

B：第十二單元TechnologyRemakestheSchoolsHowardGardnerTechnologyhasrevolutionizedtheworldinwhichschoolsoperate.Nowit’stimeforeducatorstocatchuptochange.1.Ahumanbeingmiraculouslytransportedfrom1900toourtimewouldrecognizemuchofwhatgoesonintoday’sclassrooms—theprevalentlecturing,theemphasisondrill,thedecontextualizedmaterialsandactivitiesrangingfrombanalreaderstoweeklyspellingtests.Withthepossibleexceptionofthechurch,fewinstitutionshavechangedaslittleinfundamentalwaysasthosechargedwiththeformaleducationofthenextgeneration.2.Contrastthiscontinuitywithchildren’sexperiencesoutsidetheschoolwalls.Inmodernsocietychildrenhaveaccesstoarangeofmediathatwouldhaveseemedmiraculousinanearlierera(andthatstillastonishesmembersoflessindustrializedsocieties):television,cellularphones,personalcomputerswithCD-ROMs,faxmachines,videodiscs,personalstereos,andstillandvideocameras.3.Thevisitorfromthepastwhowouldreadilyrecognizetoday’sclassroomwouldhavetroublerelatingtotheout-of-schoolworldofamodern10-year-old.IconfessthatIoftenexperiencesuchdifficultiesmyself.4.Schools—ifnoteducationgenerally—areinherentlyconservativeinstitutions.Inlargemeasure,Iwoulddefendthisconservatism.Butchangesinourworldaresorapidandsodecisivethatitwillnotbepossibleforschoolstoremainastheywereorsimplytointroduceafewsuperficialadjustments.Indeed,ifschoolsdonotchangerapidlyandradically,theyarelikelytobereplacedbyother,moreresponsive(thoughperhapslesscomfortableandlesslegitimate)institutions.5.Themostimportanttechnologicaleventofourtimeistheascendancyofthecomputer.Computersalreadyplayaprominentroleinmanyaspectsofourlives,fromtransportationcommunicationtopersonalbookkeepingandentertainment.Scarcelyoblivioustothesetrends,manyschoolsnowhavecomputersandnetworkingcapabilities.Tosomeextent,thesetechnologicalappurtenanceshavebeenabsorbedintothelifeoftheschool,thoughoftentheysimplydelivertheoldlessonsinamoreconvenientandefficientformat.6.Inthefuture,however,educationwillbeorganizedlargelyaroundthecomputer.Computerswillpermitadegreeofindividualization—personalizedcoachingortutoring—whichinthepastwasavailableonlytotherich.Allstudentsmayreceiveacurriculumtailoredtotheirneeds,learningstyle,paceandprofileofmastery,andrecordofsuccesswithearliermaterialsandlessons.Indeed,computertechnologypermitsustorealize,forthefirsttime,progressiveeducationalideasof“personalization”and“active,hands-onlearning”forstudentsallovertheworld.7.Computertechnologyputsalltheinformationintheworldatone’sfingertips,quiteliterally.Thisisbothablessingandacurse.Nolongerdowehavetospendlongperiodsoftimehuntingdownasourceoraperson—thesecanbefoundinstantaneously.SoonwewillnotevenhavetotypeinaninstructioninordertolearnthecapitalofMontana,thepopulationofKorea,orOhm’slaw;wewillbeabletosimplyaskaquestionoutloudandthecomputerwillprintoutorspeaktheanswer.Thuspeoplewillachieveinstant“culturalliteracy”.8.Lesshappily,theinternethasnomeansofqualitycontrol;“anyonecanplay”.Informationanddisinformationcomminglecomfortablyand,asofyet,therearenoreliablewaystodistinguishsensefromdistortionsanddownrightnonsenseontheNet.EthnographerSherryTurkletellsabouttheyoungchildwhoinsiststhat“therearealwaysriotswhentaxesgoup”becausethatisthecommonwisdomembeddedinthewidelyavailablegameprogram,SimCity.Identifyingthetrue,thebeautiful,andthegood—andwhichofthesetruths,beauties,orgoodsareworthknowing—constitutesaformidablechallenge.9.Itmightbesaid,inresponse,thattheworldhasalwaysbeenfilledwithmisinformation.Trueenough,butinthepasteducationalauthoritiescouldatleastchoosetheirfavoritetexts(andproscribeothers).Today’ssituation,witheveryonehavinginstantaccesstomillionsofsources,isunprecedented.10.Artificialintelligenceandvirtualrealityaretwocomputer-relatedtechnologiesthatmaycastalargeshadowoneducation.Muchofschoolplanningmaybedonenotbyhumanagentsbutbyprogramscreatedbyhumanagents;andmuchofwhatwasonceaccomplishedbytextbooksandoccasionalfieldtripswillnowbeperformedinvirtualreality.Onecanask:whatisthetruthvalueofmaterialspreparedentirelybynonhumanentities?11.Inaturnaboutfromprevioustrends,theacquisitionofcredentialsfromaccreditedinstitutionsmaybecomelessimportant.Individualswillbeabletoeducatethemselves(largelyifnotwholly)andtoexhibittheirmasteryinasimulatedsetting.Whypay$120,000togotolawschool,ifonecan“readlaw”asinearliertimesandthendemonstrateone’slegalskillsviacomputersimulation?Orlearntoflyaplaneorconductneurosurgerybysimilarmeans,forthatmatter?12.Muchofeducationinthepastwascalibratedtomakesurethatindividualscouldcarryoutaregularjob,reliably,throughouttheirproductiveadultyears.Nowadays,thisassumptionisdoublyflawed.First,almosteverythingthatcanbehandledalgorithmicallywillbecarriedoutbyautomata.Second,fewpeoplewillremaininthesameoccupationalnichefortheirwholelives;manywillmovefrequently(eithervoluntarilyorbynecessity)fromoneniche,company,andsectoroftheeconomytoanother.13.Theexplosionofnewandrapidlychangingrolesintheworkplacecomplicateseducationinunprecedentedways.Mostadultteachersandparentswillnothaveexperiencesonwhichtheycandrawtoprepareyoungstersforaworldinwhichtheycanexpecttochangejobsregularly.Intheabsenceofprecedent,youthswillhavetopreparethemselvesforrapidlychanging“careerpaths”andlifesituations.14.Whilecomputer-basedteachingandcurriculafiguretobethedominanttechnologicalinfluenceoneducation,otherinnovationswillhaveimpactsaswell.Imagingtechnologieswillpermitstudyofstudents’brainactivityandbloodflowastheyengageinvariouskindsofproblem-solvingorcreativeactivities.Nolongerrestrictedtoresearch,thesefindingsaboutastudent’s“mentallife”arelikelytoinfluencepedagogicalapproachesaswellashisorherplacementinspecialormainstreameducationalsettings.15.Enhancedunderstandingofthegeneticbasisoflearningandofvarioustalentsisalsolikelytointrudeontheclassroom.Itmaybepossibletodeterminewhichyoungstersarelikelytoadvancequicklyandwhichonesseemdoomedto“uphill”schoolexperiences;someauthoritieswillinsistthatthesefindingsbeappliedinspecificcases,whileotherswillstrenuouslyobjecttoanydecisionsmadeonthebasisofgeneticinformation.Drugsthatpurporttoimprovelearning,memory,ormotivationwillbecomereadilyavailable.Teachersandparentsmayfaceethicaldilemmasthatwouldinearliertimeshavebeenrestrictedtosciencefiction.16.Finally,recentbreakthroughsinbiologyandmedicinemaychangeeducationinthemostradicalways.Ifindividualsseekto“design”offspringthroughgeneticengineering,ortoalterthegeneticendowmentofanalreadyexistingperson,orifhumancloningbecomesarealityaswellasapossibility,thenourdefinitionsofwhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing,andtobeapartofhumansociety,willbechangedforever.Eventhelawsofevolutionmayhavetobereconceived.17.Ihavenotedthateducationisconservative,andthatthisconserva