建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計及材料中英文對照外文翻譯文獻

PAGE中英文對照外文翻譯文獻(文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯)StructureinDesignofArchitectureAndStructuralMaterialWehaveandthearchitectsmustdealwiththespatialaspectofactivity,physical,andsymbolicneedsinsuchawaythatoverallperformanceintegrityisassured.Hence,heorshewellwantstothinkofevolvingabuildingenvironmentasatotalsystemofinteractingandspaceformingsubsystems.Isrepresentsacomplexchallenge,andtomeetitthearchitectwillneedahierarchicdesignprocessthatprovidesatleastthreelevelsoffeedbackthinking:schematic,preliminary,andfinal.Suchahierarchyisnecessaryifheorsheistoavoidbeingconfused,atconceptualstagesofdesignthinking,bythemyriaddetailissuesthatcandistractattentionfrommorebasicconsiderations.Infact,wecansaythatanarchitect’sabilitytodistinguishthemorebasicformthemoredetailedissuesisessentialtohissuccessasadesigner.Theobjectoftheschematicfeedbacklevelistogenerateandevaluateoverallsite-plan,activity-interaction,andbuilding-configurationoptions.Todosothearchitectmustbeabletofocusontheinteractionofthebasicattributesofthesitecontext,thespatialorganization,andthesymbolismasdeterminantsofphysicalform.Thismeansthat,inschematicterms,thearchitectmayfirstconceiveandmodelabuildingdesignasanorganizationalabstractionofessentialperformance-spaceinteractions.Thenheorshemayexploretheoverallspace-formimplicationsoftheabstraction.Asanactualbuildingconfigurationoptionbeginstoemerge,itwillbemodifiedtoincludeconsiderationforbasicsiteconditions.Attheschematicstage,itwouldalsobehelpfulifthedesignercouldvisualizehisorheroptionsforachievingoverallstructuralintegrityandconsidertheconstructivefeasibilityandeconomicofhisorherscheme.Butthiswillrequirethatthearchitectand/oraconsultantbeabletoconceptualizetotal-systemstructuraloptionsintermsofelementaldetail.Suchoverallthinkingcanbeeasilyfedbacktoimprovethespace-formscheme.Atthepreliminarylevel,thearchitect’semphasiswillshifttotheelaborationofhisorhermorepromisingschematicdesignoptions.Herethearchitect’sstructuralneedswillshifttoapproximatedesignofspecificsubsystemoptions.Atthisstagethetotalstructuralschemeisdevelopedtoamiddlelevelofspecificitybyfocusingonidentificationanddesignofmajorsubsystemstotheextentthattheirkeygeometric,component,andinteractivepropertiesareestablished.Basicsubsysteminteractionanddesignconflictscanthusbeidentifiedandresolvedinthecontextoftotal-systemobjectives.Consultantscanplayasignificantpartinthiseffort;thesepreliminary-leveldecisionsmayalsoresultinfeedbackthatcallsforrefinementorevenmajorchangeinschematicconcepts.Whenthedesignerandtheclientaresatisfiedwiththefeasibilityofadesignproposalatthepreliminarylevel,itmeansthatthebasicproblemsofoveralldesignaresolvedanddetailsarenotlikelytoproducemajorchange.Thefocusshiftsagain,andthedesignprocessmovesintothefinallevel.Atthisstagetheemphasiswillbeonthedetaileddevelopmentofallsubsystemspecifics.Heretheroleofspecialistsfromvariousfields,includingstructuralengineering,ismuchlarger,sincealldetailofthepreliminarydesignmustbeworkedout.DecisionsmadeatthislevelmayproducefeedbackintoLevelIIthatwillresultinchanges.However,ifLevelsIandIIarehandledwithinsight,therelationshipbetweentheoveralldecisions,madeattheschematicandpreliminarylevels,andthespecificsofthefinallevelshouldbesuchthatgrossredesignisnotinquestion,Rather,theentireprocessshouldbeoneofmovinginanevolutionaryfashionfromcreationandrefinement(ormodification)ofthemoregeneralpropertiesofatotal-systemdesignconcept,tothefleshingoutofrequisiteelementsanddetails.Tosummarize:AtLevelI,thearchitectmustfirstestablish,inconceptualterms,theoverallspace-formfeasibilityofbasicschematicoptions.Atthisstage,collaborationwithspecialistscanbehelpful,butonlyifintheformofoverallthinking.AtLevelII,thearchitectmustbeabletoidentifythemajorsubsystemrequirementsimpliedbytheschemeandsubstantialtheirinteractivefeasibilitybyapproximatingkeycomponentproperties.Thatis,thepropertiesofmajorsubsystemsneedbeworkedoutonlyinsufficientdepthtoverytheinherentcompatibilityoftheirbasicform-relatedandbehavioralinteraction.ThiswillmeanasomewhatmorespecificformofcollaborationwithspecialiststhenthatinlevelI.AtlevelIII,thearchitectandthespecificformofcollaborationwithspecialiststhenthatprovidingforalloftheelementaldesignspecificsrequiredtoproducebiddableconstructiondocuments.OfcoursethissuccesscomesfromthedevelopmentoftheStructuralMaterial.Theprincipalconstructionmaterialsofearliertimeswerewoodandmasonrybrick,stone,ortile,andsimilarmaterials.Thecoursesorlayerswereboundtogetherwithmortarorbitumen,atarlikesubstance,orsomeotherbindingagent.TheGreeksandRomanssometimesusedironrodsorclapstostrengthentheirbuilding.ThecolumnsoftheParthenoninAthens,forexample,haveholesdrilledinthemforironbarsthathavenowrustedaway.TheRomansalsousedanaturalcementcalledpuzzling,madefromvolcanicash,thatbecameashardasstoneunderwater.Bothsteelandcement,thetwomostimportantconstructionmaterialsofmoderntimes,wereintroducedinthenineteenthcentury.Steel,basicallyanalloyofironandasmallamountofcarbonhadbeenmadeuptothattimebyalaboriousprocessthatrestrictedittosuchspecialusesasswordblades.AftertheinventionoftheBessemerprocessin1856,steelwasavailableinlargequantitiesatlowprices.Theenormousadvantageofsteelisitstensileforcewhich,aswehaveseen,tendstopullapartmanymaterials.Newalloyshavefurther,whichisatendencyforittoweakenasaresultofcontinualchangesinstress.Moderncement,calledPortlandcement,wasinventedin1824.Itisamixtureoflimestoneandclay,whichisheatedandthengroundintoapower.Itismixedatorneartheconstructionsitewithsand,aggregatesmallstones,crushedrock,orgravel,andwatertomakeconcrete.Differentproportionsoftheingredientsproduceconcretewithdifferentstrengthandweight.Concreteisveryversatile;itcanbepoured,pumped,orevensprayedintoallkindsofshapes.Andwhereassteelhasgreattensilestrength,concretehasgreatstrengthundercompression.Thus,thetwosubstancescomplementeachother.Theyalsocomplementeachotherinanotherway:theyhavealmostthesamerateofcontractionandexpansion.Theythereforecanworktogetherinsituationswherebothcompressionandtensionarefactors.Steelrodsareembeddedinconcretetomakereinforcedconcreteinconcretebeamsorstructureswheretensionswilldevelop.Concreteandsteelalsoformsuchastrongbond─theforcethatunitesthem─thatthesteelcannotslipwithintheconcrete.Stillanotheradvantageisthatsteeldoesnotrustinconcrete.Acidcorrodessteel,whereasconcretehasanalkalinechemicalreaction,theoppositeofacid.Theadoptionofstructuralsteelandreinforcedconcretecausedmajorchangesintraditionalconstructionpractices.Itwasnolongernecessarytousethickwallsofstoneorbrickformultistorybuildings,anditbecamemuchsimplertobuildfire-resistantfloors.Boththesechangesservedtoreducethecostofconstruction.Italsobecamepossibletoerectbuildingswithgreaterheightsandlongerspans.Sincetheweightofmodernstructuresiscarriedbythesteelorconcreteframe,thewallsdonotsupportthebuilding.Theyhavebecomecurtainwalls,whichkeepouttheweatherandletinlight.Intheearliersteelorconcreteframebuilding,thecurtainwallsweregenerallymadeofmasonry;theyhadthesolidlookofbearingwalls.Today,however,curtainwallsareoftenmadeoflightweightmaterialssuchasglass,aluminum,orplastic,invariouscombinations.Anotheradvanceinsteelconstructionisthemethodoffasteningtogetherthebeams.Formanyyearsthestandardmethodwasriveting.Arivetisaboltwithaheadthatlookslikeabluntscrewwithoutthreads.Itisheated,placedinholesthroughthepiecesofsteel,andasecondheadisformedattheotherendbyhammeringittoholditinplace.Rivetinghasnowlargelybeenreplacedbywelding,thejoiningtogetherofpiecesofsteelbymeltingasteelmaterialbetweenthemunderhighheat.Priestess’sconcreteisanimprovedformofreinforcement.Steelrodsarebentintotheshapestogivethemthenecessarydegreeoftensilestrengths.Theyarethenusedtopriestessconcrete,usuallybyoneoftwodifferentmethods.Thefirstistoleavechannelsinaconcretebeamthatcorrespondtotheshapesofthesteelrods.Whentherodsarerunthroughthechannels,theyarethenbondedtotheconcretebyfillingthechannelswithgrout,athinmortarorbindingagent.Intheother(andmorecommon)method,thepriestessessteelrodsareplacedinthelowerpartofaformthatcorrespondstotheshapeofthefinishedstructure,andtheconcreteispouredaroundthem.Priestess’sconcreteuseslesssteelandlessconcrete.Becauseitisahighlydesirablematerial.Progressedconcretehasmadeitpossibletodevelopbuildingswithunusualshapes,likesomeofthemodern,sportsarenas,withlargespacesunbrokenbyanyobstructingsupports.Theusesforthisrelativelynewstructuralmethodareconstantlybeingdeveloped.建筑中的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計及建筑材料建筑師必須從一種全局的角度出發(fā)去處理建筑設(shè)計中應該考慮到的實用活動，物質(zhì)及象征性的需求。因此，他或他試圖將有相互有關(guān)的空間形式分體系組成的總體系形成一個建筑環(huán)境。這是一種復雜的挑戰(zhàn)，為適應這一挑戰(zhàn)，建筑師需要有一個分階段的設(shè)計過程，其至少要分三個“反饋”考慮階段：方案階段，初步設(shè)計階段和施工圖設(shè)計階段。這樣的分階段涉及是必需的，它可使設(shè)計者避免受很多細節(jié)的困惑，而這些細節(jié)往往會干擾設(shè)計者的基本思路。實際上，我們可以說一個成功的建筑設(shè)計師應該具備一種從很多細節(jié)中分辨出更為基本的內(nèi)容的能力。概念構(gòu)思階段的任務時提出和斟酌全局場地規(guī)劃，活動相互作用及房屋形式方案。為實現(xiàn)這些，建筑師必須注意場地各部分的基本使用，空間組織，并應用象征手法確定其具體形式。這就要求建筑師首先按照基本功能和空間關(guān)系對一項建筑設(shè)計首先構(gòu)思并模擬出一個抽象的建筑物，然后再對這一抽象的總體空間進行深入探究。在開始勾畫具體的建筑形似時，應考慮基本的場所跳進加以修改。在方案階段，如果設(shè)計者能夠形象的預見所作方案的結(jié)構(gòu)整體性，并要考慮施工階段可行性及經(jīng)濟性，那將是非常有幫助的。這就要求建筑師或者過問工程是能夠從主要分體系之間的關(guān)系而不是從構(gòu)建細節(jié)去構(gòu)思總體結(jié)構(gòu)方案。這種能夠易于反饋以改進空間形式方案。在初步設(shè)計階段，建筑師的重點工作應是詳細化可能成為最終方案的設(shè)計，這是建筑師對結(jié)構(gòu)的要求業(yè)轉(zhuǎn)移到做分體系具體方案的粗略設(shè)計上。在這一階段應該完成對結(jié)構(gòu)布置的中等程度的確定，重點論證和設(shè)計主要分體系已確定它們的主要幾何尺寸，構(gòu)件和相互關(guān)系。這樣就可以依據(jù)全局設(shè)計方案，確定并解決各分體系的相互影響以及設(shè)計難題。顧問工程師在這一過程中作用重大，但各細部的考慮還留有選擇余地。當然，這些初步設(shè)計階段所作的決定仍可以反饋回取使方案概念進一步改善，或甚至可能有重大變化。當設(shè)計者和顧問工程師對初始階段設(shè)計方案的可行性滿意時，就意味著全部設(shè)計的基本問題已經(jīng)解決，不會再因細節(jié)問題而發(fā)生大的變化。這是工作重點將再次轉(zhuǎn)移，進入細部設(shè)計。在這一階段將重點完善各分體系的細節(jié)設(shè)計。此時包括結(jié)構(gòu)工程在內(nèi)的各個領(lǐng)域的專家的作用將十分突出，應為所有施工的細節(jié)都必須設(shè)計出來。這一階段的決定，可能會反饋到第二階段并導致一些變化。如果第一階段和第二階段的設(shè)計做的深入，那么在最初兩個階段所得到的總體結(jié)論和最后階段的細節(jié)的重新設(shè)計不再是問題。當然，整個實際過程應該是逐步發(fā)展的過程，從創(chuàng)造和細化（改進）總體設(shè)計概念直到做出精確的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計和細部構(gòu)造。綜上所述：在第一階段，建筑師必須首先用概念的方式來確定基本方案的全部空間形式的可行性。在第一階段，專業(yè)人員的合作是有意義的，但僅限于行程總的構(gòu)思方面；在第二階段，建筑師應該能夠用圖形來確定各分體系的需求，并且通過估計關(guān)鍵構(gòu)件的性能來證明其相互作用的可行性。也就是說，主要分體系的性能只須做到一定深度，需要驗證他們的基本形式和相互關(guān)系是協(xié)調(diào)一致的。這需要與工程師進行更加詳細與明確的合作；在第三階段，建筑師和專業(yè)人員必須繼續(xù)合作完成所有構(gòu)件的設(shè)計細節(jié)，并制定良好的施工文件。當然，這些設(shè)計的成功來源于建筑材料的發(fā)展與革新。早期的建筑材料主要是木材和砌塊,如磚塊、石材或瓦片及其它類似的材料。磚和磚之間是由砂漿或者焦油狀的瀝青或其它粘合物粘結(jié)在一起。希臘人和羅馬人有時利用鐵棒或夾鉗來加固他們的建筑。例如,在雅典的帕臺農(nóng)神廟的柱子,就是由在水中也能變得如石材般堅硬的火山灰建成的。鋼材和水泥─現(xiàn)代最重要的兩種建筑材料,