GRE考試Issue寫作范文詳解

GRE考試Issue寫作范文詳解(1~19)(1):Issue"Thereputationofanyonewhoissubjectedtomediascrutinywilleventuallybediminished."

觀點(diǎn)陳述型作文/[題目]

"被置于媒體審視下的任何人，其名譽(yù)終將受毀損。"

SampleEssay

Theintensityoftoday'smediacoveragehasbeengreatlymagnifiedbythesheernumberandtypesofmediaoutletsthatareavailabletoday.Intensecompetitionforthemostrevealingphotographsandthelatestinformationonasubjecthasturnedevenminormediaeventsintoso-called"mediafrenzies".Reportersareforcedbythenatureofthecompetitiontopryeverdeeperforanangleonastorythatnooneelsehasbeenabletouncover.Withthistypeofmediacoverage,itdoesbecomemoreandmorelikelythatanyonewhoissubjectedtoitwillhavehisorherreputationtarnished,asnoindividualisperfect.Everyonemakesmistakes.Theadvancesintechnologyhavemademuchinformationeasilyandinstantaneouslyavailable.Technologyhasalsomadeiteasiertodigfurtherthaneverbeforeintoaperson'spast,increasingthepossibilitythatthesubject'sreputationmaybeharmed.

[范文正文]

當(dāng)今媒體報(bào)道的力度，由于當(dāng)今時(shí)代所能獲得的媒體渠道那前所未有的數(shù)量和種類，從而被極大地增強(qiáng)。圍繞著對(duì)最具暴露性的圖片及對(duì)某一題材最新信息所展開的競(jìng)爭(zhēng)，使哪怕是次要的媒體事件也轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)樗^的"媒體瘋狂".由于競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的本質(zhì)，記者們被迫就某一項(xiàng)報(bào)道作深度采訪，以其窺探到一個(gè)任何其他人都無法揭示的視角。隨著這類媒體報(bào)道的出現(xiàn)，任何被置于媒體報(bào)道之下的人，其名譽(yù)越來越有可能被玷污，因?yàn)?金無赤金，人無完人".每個(gè)人都有可能犯錯(cuò)誤。技術(shù)進(jìn)步使大量的信息在第一瞬間便被輕易獲取。技術(shù)也使媒體得以比以往任何時(shí)候更深入地去挖掘一個(gè)人的過去，從而更增加了當(dāng)事人名譽(yù)受損的可能性。

Theabovestatementismuchtoobroad,however."Anyone"coversallpeopleallovertheworld.Therearepeoplewhosereputationshaveonlybeenenhancedbymediascrutiny.Therearealsopeoplewhosereputationswerealreadysopoorthatmediascrutinycouldnotpossiblydiminishitanyfurther.Theremayverywellbepeoplethathavedonenothingwronginthepast,atleastthatcanbediscoveredbythemedia,whosereputationscouldnotbediminishedbymediascrutiny.Tobroadlystatethat"anyone"subjectedtomediacoveragewillhavehisorherstatussulliedimpliesthateveryone'sreputationworldwideissusceptibletodamageunderanytypeofmediascrutiny.Whataboutchildren,particularlynewbornchildren?Whataboutthosepeoplewhosepastisentirelyunknown?

然則，上述陳述涵蓋面過于寬泛。"任何人"涵蓋了世界上所有的人。有些人的名譽(yù)反而會(huì)因?yàn)槊襟w的聚焦而陡然顯赫起來。也有些人，其名聲早就如此之糟糕，以致于媒體的聚焦再也無法讓它受到更壞的毀損?；\統(tǒng)地陳述受媒體報(bào)道的"任何人"均會(huì)使其地位被玷污，這暗示著全球每個(gè)人的名聲在任何種類的媒體聚焦下均易于遭詬病。那么，對(duì)于天真無辜的孩子們，尤其新生嬰兒，情況會(huì)如何？對(duì)于那些其過去根本無人知曉的人來說，情況又會(huì)是什么樣呢？

Anotherproblemwithsuchabroadstatementisthatitdoesnotdefinetheparticularlevelofmediascrutiny.Certainlytherearedifferentlevelsofmediacoverage.Doesmerelythementionofone'snameinanewspaperconstitutemediascrutiny?Whataboutthecoverageofasingleeventinsomeone'slife,forexampleaweddingorthebirthofababy?Isthemediacoverageoftheheroicdeathofafirefighterorpoliceofficerinthelineofdutyevergoingtodiminishthatperson'sreputation?Itseemshighlyunlikelythatintheseexamples,althoughthesepeoplemayhavebeensubjectedtomediascrutiny,theseindividual'sreputationsareundamagedandpotentiallyenhancedbysuchexposure.

對(duì)于這樣一項(xiàng)籠統(tǒng)的陳述而言，它的另一個(gè)問題是沒能明晰界定媒體聚焦的具體程度。媒體的報(bào)道毫無疑問存在程度上的差別。只在報(bào)紙上提及一個(gè)人的名字，是否算作媒體聚焦？對(duì)某人一生中單獨(dú)一次事件（如婚禮或孩子出生）的報(bào)道這也算媒介聚焦嗎？媒體對(duì)消防隊(duì)員或警官因公而死的英雄壯舉進(jìn)行報(bào)道，難道也會(huì)毀損該人的名聲嗎？在這些實(shí)例中，其名聲受損的事情極不可能發(fā)生。雖然這些人可能被置于媒體審視之下，但其名聲卻會(huì)完好無損，且潛在地可因這些披露而得以提高。

Withoutadoubt,therearemanyexamplesofindividual'swhosereputationshavebeendiminishedbymediascrutiny.Themedia'suncoveringofformerU.S.PresidentBillClinton'saffairwithMonicaLewinskywillmostlikelyovershadowtheentireeightyearsofhisadministration.BasketballsuperstarMichaelJordan'ssterlingreputationhasbeentarnishedmorethanoncebythemedia;firstbymediacoverageofhisgamblinghabits,thenmostrecently（andinamuchmoreharmfulmanner）bynewsreportsofhismaritalinfidelitiesandthedivorcefromhiswifeofthirteenyears.Fameandfortunecanturnanordinaryindividualintoamediatargetwherereporterswillstopatalmostnothingto"digupdirt"thatwillsellmorenewspapersorenticemoreviewerstowatchatelevisionprogram.ItcouldevenbearguedthatmediascrutinykilledPrincessDianaashercarspedawayfromtheprivacy-invadingcamerasofreportersinParis.Thereisnodoubtthattherearealargenumberofpeoplewhohavebeenhurtinonewayoranotherbyparticularlyintensemediascrutiny.

毫無疑問，也有許多例子能證明一個(gè)人的名聲會(huì)被媒體審視所毀損。媒體對(duì)美國(guó)前總統(tǒng)BillClinton與MonicaLewinsky的風(fēng)流韻事的揭露極有可能會(huì)將其八年的執(zhí)政生涯置于陰影之中。超級(jí)籃球明星MichaelJordan一世英名也被媒體不止一次地玷污，首先是被有關(guān)其賭習(xí)的媒體報(bào)道，其次是最近——且以一種更具致命性傷害的方式——被有關(guān)他婚姻不忠以及與其結(jié)婚13年的妻子分道揚(yáng)鑣的報(bào)道。當(dāng)媒體記者不擇手段去挖掘某些可促使其報(bào)紙銷量大增的"猛料"時(shí)，或去誘惑更多的觀眾觀看某一電視節(jié)目時(shí)，名和利就會(huì)將一個(gè)普通人轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)槊襟w追蹤的目標(biāo)。我們甚至可以提出這樣一種論點(diǎn)，即正是媒體的審視將Diana王妃置于死地，隨著她的汽車去竭力逃脫巴黎街頭的記者們那侵犯隱私的相機(jī)鏡頭。毫無疑問，肯定有許多人被極其強(qiáng)烈的媒體聚焦以一種方式或另一種方式所傷害。

Insummary,itseemsimpossiblethatforeverypersonthatissubjectedtomediascrutiny,hisorherreputationwilleventuallybediminished.Millionsofpeoplearementionedinthemediaeverydayyetstillmanagetogoabouttheirlivesunhurtbythemedia.Normalindividualsthataresubjectedtomediascrutinycanhavetheirreputationeitherenhancedordamageddependingonthecircumstancessurroundingthemediacoverage.Thelikelihoodofadiminishedreputationfromthemediarisesproportionallywiththelevelofnotorietythatanindividualpossessesandtheoutrageousnessofthatperson'sbehavior.Thelengthoftimeinthespotlightcanalsobeadeterminingfactor,asthelongerthepersonisexaminedinthemedia,thegreaterthepossibilitythatdamaginginformationwillbediscoveredorthattheindividualwilldosomethingtodisparagehisorherreputation.Buttobroadlystatethatmediascrutinywilldiminishanyone'sreputationistooverstatethedistinctpossibilitythat,givenalongenoughtimeandacertainlevelofintensityofcoverage,themediamaydamageaperson'sreputation.

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歸納而言，對(duì)于每個(gè)被置于媒體審視的人來說，其名聲將最終受到毀損似乎并不可能。每天，有數(shù)百萬人被媒體提到，但他們?nèi)栽O(shè)法我行我素，不為媒體所傷害。被置于媒體審視之下的普通人，其名聲或可得到提高，或可蒙受毀損，取決于圍繞著媒體報(bào)道的具體情況。一個(gè)人的名聲受媒體毀損的可能性，與所其擁有的臭名昭著的程度，及其行為的令人厭惡程度成正比。受媒體關(guān)注的時(shí)間長(zhǎng)短同樣也是一個(gè)決定性因素，因?yàn)橐粋€(gè)人被媒體審視的時(shí)間越長(zhǎng)，于他名聲不利的信息越有可能被抖落出來，或者該人越有可能去做出某些于其名聲不利的事情。但只是籠統(tǒng)地陳述媒體的審視終將毀掉一個(gè)人的名聲，即是過分夸大這樣一種顯著的可能性，即在足夠長(zhǎng)的時(shí)間和一度程度的報(bào)道力度這兩個(gè)條件下，媒體是有可能毀掉一個(gè)人的名聲的。(2):Issue"Thestudyofhistoryhasvalueonlytotheextentthatitisrelevanttoourdailylives."

SampleEssay

Tostatethatthestudyofhistoryisonlyvaluableifitisrelevanttoourdailylivesistoignorethevaluethathistoryhasbeyondtheday-to-dayactivitiesofhumanbeings.Itwouldseemtobearathershallowstatementthatimpliesthathumansonlylivejusttosurviveratherthanplanningforthefuturesoftheirchildrenandtheenvironment.

Firstofall,tostudyhistoryistolookataroadmapofhumanbehaviorthathasledustowherewearetodayintheworld.Forexample,thelessonslearnedduringallofthepastwarscanmakeformoreeffectivewartimeleadershipbyavoidingmistakesmadebypastcommanders.FromtheancientChineseauthorSunTzu'sbook"TheArtofWar",today'smilitarycommandersandevenbusinessleadersgathervaluableinformationthatallowsthemtooperatemoreefficientlyandeffectively.Thestudyofthistypeofhistoryhasavaluebeyondthedailylivesofpeople.Itcanleadtoamilitaryvictoryorthesuccessofabusinessthatdirectlyaffectswhathappensinthefuture,includingthefuturesofthosethatarepossiblynotevenbornyet.

Anotherexampleisthatbystudyinghistory,parentscanhelptoimprovethelivesoftheirchildreninthefuture.Lessonslearnedbygenerationsoftheirancestorsbeforethemcouldhelpshowthemthewaytoproperlyraiseachild.Whatworkedforotherscangiveguidancetotheparentsoftodayandtomorrowtomakesurethatchildrenarepreparedfortheirownfuturesbeyondtheirdailylives.

Additionally,thestudyofmedicaladvancesmadethroughouthistorycanbethefoundationtobuildupontomakethemedicaladvancesoftodayandtomorrowtomakepeoplelivelongerandhealthierlives.Aresearcher'sdailylifemaynotbeenhancedbythestudyofthehistoryoftheAIDSpathogen,butitcouldcertainlybringaboutaprofoundeffectonthelivesofothersinthefutureifwaystocontrolandcurethediseasearefound.Thestudyofpreviousresearchoverhistoryhasledtomanyamazingmedicaldiscoveries.Tostudyhistoryonlytoenrichone'sdailylifewouldhereagainseemtobeincongruouswiththetruth.

Afurtherexampleofthevalueofthestudyofhistorybeyonditseffectondailylifeisthetreatmentoftheenvironmentandtheearthasawhole.Lookingbacktothepasttoseethevariouseffectsofvarioushumanbehaviorsontheenvironmentcanshowvaluablelessonsonwhatcanhappenifproperprecautionsarenottaken.ThenuclearaccidentsatThreeMileIslandandChernobylhavebeenstudiedtoensurethattheydonothappenagain.Certainlythestudyoftheeffectsofnuclearmaterialsonhumansandtheenvironmentprovidesvaluebeyondthatoftheday-to-daylifeofpeople.Thestudyofoilspillsandtheireffectsontheenvironmentgivessimilarguidanceonhowtoavoidoratleastminimizethedamageofanoilspillontheenvironment.Thestudyofthedisintegrationoftheozonelayeroverthepolesoftheearthhasgivenbirthtonewlawsandregulationsoncertainchemicalsthathelptopreservethisvaluablepartofouratmosphere.Alloftheseexamplesofstudyinghistoryprovidevaluefarbeyonditsimpactonthedailylivesofpeople.

Tobecertain,therearepeopleouttherethatbelievethatonlywhataffectsthemrighthereandrightnowisimportant.Forthem,thestudyofhistorymightseemtobeawasteoftimeifitdoesnotaffecttheirday-to-daylives.Butforcountlessotherindividualsandgroups,thestudyofhistoryleadstoimprovementsinactivitiesthathaveaneffectreachingfarintothefuture,beyondtheirdailylives.Thefuturesofmankindandtheenvironmentdependonthesetypesofpeoplewhohaveenoughforesighttostudyhistorytomakeforabetterfutureforeveryone.

（690words）觀點(diǎn)陳述型作文

[題目]

"對(duì)歷史的研究只有與我們?nèi)粘Ｉ钕嚓P(guān)才有其價(jià)值".

[范文正文]

"史學(xué)研究只有與我們?nèi)粘Ｉ钕嚓P(guān)才有價(jià)值"這一陳述忽略了歷史在人類日?；顒?dòng)之外的價(jià)值。這似乎是一種甚為淺薄的論點(diǎn)，其言下之意是，人類生活在這個(gè)世界上只是為了得以生存下去，而不是為著其孩子和環(huán)境的未來作規(guī)劃。

首先，研究歷史即是去審視一幀人類行為的"指路圖"，讓我們明白我們何以會(huì)處于目前的狀態(tài)。例如，從過去戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)中所吸取的全部教訓(xùn)能夠通過幫助人們避免昔日指揮官們所犯的錯(cuò)誤而促進(jìn)更為有效的戰(zhàn)時(shí)領(lǐng)導(dǎo)藝術(shù)。從中國(guó)古代的《孫子兵法》一書中，今天的軍事指揮官們甚至是商界領(lǐng)袖們得以獲取極有價(jià)值的信息，使他們能更有效地進(jìn)行戰(zhàn)爭(zhēng)或商業(yè)操控。這種歷史研究所具備的價(jià)值已超越了人們?nèi)粘Ｉ钸@一范疇。它所能導(dǎo)致的軍事勝利或商業(yè)成功可直接影響到未來所要發(fā)生的一切，包括尚未出生的人的未來。

另一個(gè)例子是通過研究歷史，父母?jìng)兛梢愿纳扑麄兒⒆釉谖磥淼纳?。父輩之前的?shù)代祖先們所學(xué)到的教訓(xùn)可以向父輩們表明什么才是撫養(yǎng)孩子的恰當(dāng)方法。于他人有效的東西可以為當(dāng)今和未來的父母?jìng)兲峁┯幸娴闹笇?dǎo)，以確保孩子們可為其未來作好準(zhǔn)備。

此外，研究歷史上所取得的醫(yī)學(xué)進(jìn)步可以奠定一個(gè)基礎(chǔ)，為當(dāng)今和未來取得醫(yī)學(xué)進(jìn)步創(chuàng)造條件，使人們得以過上壽命更長(zhǎng)且更為健康的生活。研究愛滋病病源體的歷史，或許并不能改善研究人員的日常生活，但它卻肯定能對(duì)其他人在未來的生活產(chǎn)生深遠(yuǎn)的影響，如果控制和治療這一疾病的方法能被找到。對(duì)歷史上昔日的研究進(jìn)行分析，已導(dǎo)致了許多令人驚喜的醫(yī)學(xué)發(fā)現(xiàn)。只為了豐富一個(gè)人日常生活而去研究歷史，在這里將再一次與事實(shí)真相不符。

歷史研究的價(jià)值能超越其對(duì)日常生活的直接影響，這方面的另一個(gè)案例是人類是如何對(duì)環(huán)境及整個(gè)地球的?；仡櫄v史，看清各種人類行為對(duì)環(huán)境所造成的各種影響，這樣做可以向人們昭示，如果不采取恰當(dāng)?shù)姆婪洞胧?，則后患無窮。發(fā)生在三英里島和切爾諾貝的核事故被研究，以便確保此類事故不再發(fā)生。就核物質(zhì)對(duì)人類及環(huán)境的影響展開研究，這無疑會(huì)提供超越人們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹膬r(jià)值。對(duì)原油泄漏及對(duì)環(huán)境影響進(jìn)行研究，可以提供類似的指導(dǎo)，讓人們懂得如何去避免或至少是減輕原油泄漏對(duì)環(huán)境產(chǎn)生的后果。對(duì)地球南北兩極臭氧層遭破壞進(jìn)行研究，促使人類就某些化學(xué)品制定出新的法規(guī)，從而有助于保護(hù)我們大氣層中的有價(jià)值的這一部分。所有這些研究歷史的實(shí)例所提供的價(jià)值無疑已超越了對(duì)人們?nèi)粘Ｉ钏a(chǎn)生的影響。

當(dāng)然了，社會(huì)上有些人相信，只有那些此時(shí)此地影響著他們的事情才是重要的。對(duì)他們而言，對(duì)歷史的研究如果不能夠影響到他們?nèi)粘Ｉ畹脑?，就純粹是在浪費(fèi)時(shí)間。但對(duì)于無數(shù)其他個(gè)人和群體來說，研究歷史可導(dǎo)致其所從事的活動(dòng)的改善，這些活動(dòng)所產(chǎn)生的影響會(huì)深入到未來，遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)超越其日常生活。人類和環(huán)境的未來就有賴于這樣一些類型的人，他們高瞻遠(yuǎn)矚，從歷史中獲取有益的教訓(xùn)，以謀求為所有的人創(chuàng)造一個(gè)更為美好的未來。(3):Issue"Peopleworkmoreproductivelyinteamsthanindividually.Teamworkrequirescooperation,whichmotivatespeoplemuchmorethanindividualcompetitiondoes."

SampleEssay

Teamworkasawholecannaturallyproduceanoverallgreaterproductivitythroughtheconceptof"synergy",wherethetotalofthewholeisgreaterthanthesumofitsindividualparts.Buttheideathatpeopleworkmoreproductivelyinteamsratherthanasindividualsisgoingtovarygreatlybetweenthetypesofteamsthatareorganized,theendrewardormotivationforboththeteamandtheindividuals,aswellastheindividualsthemselves.

Regardingindividuals,somepeoplearebornwiththedesiretosucceed,nomatterwhatthesituationortaskthattheyarefacing.Thesepeoplemayevolveintotheclassic"TypeA"personalitiesthatworkferociouslybecausetheyaredrivenbyaninternalfirethatsaystheymustalwaysbedoingsomething,whetherindividuallyoraspartofateam.Otherpeoplemaydesiretobelesssociallyinvolvedorareveryhighlycompetitivewithotherpeople.Forthesepeople,theirworkismostproductiveasindividuals,becausetheveryideaofcooperatingwithotherpeoplelimitstheireffectivenessandefficiencybecausetheysimplydonotwanttobeapartoftheteam.Whetherthismindsetisinnateordevelopedovertimedoesnotmatter,itismerelythestateoftheirbeingandneithermotivationnorrewardscangenerateinsidethemthedesiretoworkcollectivelyasateam.

Somepeoplearehighlymotivatedbysocialinteractionandthedesiretoworkwithotherstowardsacollectiveeffort.Obviouslytheseindividualsareattheirmostproductivewhenworkingaspartofateam.OrganizationalbehavioralstudieshaveshownthatAsianculturesaremuchmorelikelytodevelopthistypeofcollectivebehaviorasopposedtothemoreindividualisticbehaviorassociatedwithWesterncultures.Itcouldnaturallybeassumedthenthattheremaybeculturalvaluesthatcandeterminewhetherpeopleareattheirmostproductiveindividuallyoraspartofateam.

Anothervariableistheendrewardthatisinvolvedwiththetaskathand.Willtherewardsbegreateriftheteamworkstogethertowardsacommongoal,oraretherewardsmoregearedtowardindividualperformance?Totheextentthattheindividualismotivatedbytheendreward,obviouslyhisorherperformanceinsideofateammaybemoreorlessproductivewithrespecttotheentireteam,dependingonhowtheperformanceisrewarded.Individualgoalsmayinterferewiththegroupperformance.Synergiesmaynotbeachievedbecausetheindividualsarenotworkingtowardsawhole"sum"butrathertowardsanindividualreward.Productivitythuswillvaryforeachpersonasateammemberorasanindividualdependingonthedegreetowhichthatpersonismotivatedbyanindividualoroverallteamreward.

Finally,thedegreeofproductivityofapersonwilldependuponthetypeofteamthatisorganized.Isthegroupcomposedofequallycontributingindividuals?Doesthegrouphaveanoutstandingleaderthatcanmotivateboththeindividualsandtheteamasawhole?Fromapureproductivitystandpoint,thepresenceorabsenceofacharismaticandexceptionalleadercanmakeallthedifferencewhetherapersonwouldbemoreproductiveasapartofateamorasanindividual.Personalitytypesthatworkwelltogethercanprovetobemuchmoreproductiveaspartofateamthanasindividuals,andviceversa.

Fundamentally,measuresofproductivitydependgreatlyontheindividualsthemselves.Thedilemmafacingleadersinallareasoflifeishowtobestassesstheseindividualstodeterminehowtobestharnesstheircapabilitiestoreachtheirultimateproductivecapabilities.Whetherapersonismoreproductivealoneorwhileworkinginconcertwithothersisoneofthegreatchallengesthatleadersandmanagersmustfacetoaccomplishtaskseffectivelyandefficiently.觀點(diǎn)陳述型作文/[題目]

"當(dāng)人們以團(tuán)隊(duì)的形式工作時(shí)，要比以孤軍奮戰(zhàn)的形式來得更加富有成效。團(tuán)隊(duì)的協(xié)同工作需要相互合作，它比個(gè)人競(jìng)爭(zhēng)更能激勵(lì)人們。"

[范文正文]

總體而言，團(tuán)隊(duì)的協(xié)同工作自然能通過"增效作用"（Synergy）這一理念而帶來更高程度的整體生產(chǎn)效率，因?yàn)樵谶@里，整體大于個(gè)體相加之總和。然則，"當(dāng)人們以團(tuán)隊(duì)的形式工作時(shí)，要比以孤軍奮戰(zhàn)的形式來得更加富有成效"這一觀念注定會(huì)產(chǎn)生巨大差異，取決于所組織起來的團(tuán)隊(duì)的類別，團(tuán)隊(duì)與個(gè)人所能獲得的終極回報(bào)或激勵(lì)，以及個(gè)人本身。

關(guān)于個(gè)人，有些人天生就具有獲取成功的欲望，無論他們所面臨的情形或任務(wù)是什么。這些人會(huì)演變?yōu)楣ぷ骺襁@一經(jīng)典的"A類"人格，因?yàn)槭艿揭还蓛?nèi)心的熱火所驅(qū)使，這股熱火時(shí)刻告訴他們必須不停地"有所事事"，無論是作為個(gè)人抑或是作為團(tuán)隊(duì)的一分子。另一些人則可能希望不必那么多地介入社會(huì)，或者他們傾向于與其他人激烈競(jìng)爭(zhēng)。對(duì)這些人而言，作為個(gè)人，他們工作起來會(huì)最富有成效，因?yàn)橛捎谒麄兏揪筒幌氤蔀槿魏螆F(tuán)隊(duì)的一部分，與他人合作便會(huì)限制他們的效率。這一思想傾向是否與生俱有，還是隨著時(shí)間的推移而形成，這都無關(guān)緊要。這僅僅只是他們的一種生存狀態(tài)，無論是動(dòng)機(jī)還是回報(bào)，都無法在其內(nèi)心深處激發(fā)起作為一個(gè)團(tuán)隊(duì)集體工作的欲望。

有些人，由于社會(huì)互動(dòng)以及與他人協(xié)作去實(shí)現(xiàn)某種集體努力的欲望，而具有極強(qiáng)的動(dòng)機(jī)。顯然，這些個(gè)人在作為團(tuán)隊(duì)的一部分進(jìn)行工作時(shí)，他們便會(huì)處在其最富有成效的狀態(tài)。組織行為學(xué)研究表明，亞洲文化更有可能形成此類集體性行為，與那種常和西方文化聯(lián)系在一起的較為個(gè)人主義的行為構(gòu)成對(duì)比。這樣，人們自然會(huì)認(rèn)為，某些文化價(jià)值觀可以決定人們是否作為個(gè)人還是作為團(tuán)隊(duì)的一部分工作起來最富有成效。(4):TopicThefollowingisalettertotheeditorofanenvironmentalmagazine："Thedeclineinthenumbersofamphibiansworldwideclearlyindicatestheglobalpollutionofwaterandair.TwostudiesofamphibiansinYosemiteNationalParkinCaliforniaconfirmmyconclusion.In1915thereweresevenspeciesofamphibiansinthepark,andtherewereabundantnumbersofeachspecies.However,in1992therewereonlyfourspeciesofamphibiansobservedinthepark,andthenumbersofeachspeciesweredrasticallyreduced.ThedeclineinYosemitehasbeenblamedontheintroductionoftroutintothepark'swaters,whichbeganin1920（troutareknowntoeatamphibianeggs）.ButtheintroductionoftroutcannotbetherealreasonfortheYosemitedeclinebecauseitdoesnotexplaintheworldwidedecline."

SampleEssay

Inthisargument,thewriteroftheletterconcludesthatglobalpollutionofwaterandairhascausedadeclineinthenumberofamphibiansworldwide.Tosupporthisorherconclusion,thewritercitestheresultsoftwostudies,seventy-fiveyearsapart,thatpurportedlyshowthatthenumberofamphibiansinoneparkinCalifornia,YosemiteNationalPark,havedrasticallydeclined.Additionally,thewritercastsasideagivenreasonforthedecline,statingthattheintroductionoftrouttothepark（whoareknowntoeatamphibianeggs）doesnotexplaintheworldwidedeclineinthenumberofamphibians.Thisargumentdefiessimplelogicandsuffersfromseveralcriticalfallacies.

Firstofall,theargumentisbasedononlytwostudiesinonespecificpartoftheworld,YosemiteNationalParkinCalifornia.Itisimpossibletopinpointaworldwidetheoryforthedeclineofamphibiansbasedonanynumberofstudiesinonlyonespecificlocationintheworld-thespecificvarietiesofamphibians,geographicalconditionsandotherlocationspecificvariablesprohibitsuchasweepinggeneralization.Oneveryspecificlocationcannotbeusedasamodelforallotherlocations,evenwithinoneparticularcountry,letalonetheentireworld.ThewriterprovidesnoevidencedwhatsoeverthatlinkstheYosemitestudywithanypurportedeffectsanywhereelseintheglobalenvironment.

Secondly,thetwoseparatestudiesweredoneseventy-fiveyearsapart.ThereisnoevidencethatthetwostudieswereconductedinasimilarmanneroverthesamedurationoftimeorevenoverthesameexactareasofYosemiteNationalPark,orthattheexactsamestudymethodswereused.Forexample,perhapsthefirststudylastedoveranentireyearandwasconductedbytwenty-fiveexpertsinamphibiousbiology,resultinginthefindingofsevenspeciesofamphibiansinabundantnumbers.Bycontrast,perhapsthesecondstudywasconductedoveraperiodofoneweekbyalonehighschoolstudentasaschoolscienceproject.Thewriteroffersnobasisonwhichtocomparethetwostudies,leavingitopenastowhetherthetwoaretrulycomparableintheirbreadth,scopeandexpertise.

Finally,thewriternotesthatthedeclineintheamphibianpopulationhasbeenblamedontheintroductionoftroutintothepark'swatersin1920,butthendismissesthatargumentonthepurelyspeciousbasisthatitdoesnotexplaintheworldwidedecline.Thispartoftheargumentblithelydismissestheveryrelevantfactthattroutareknowntoeatamphibianeggs.Thisattemptto"proveanegative"isthelastresortofthoseinsearchofsomevainattempttoprovethetruthofthematterthattheyareasserting.Itisbasicallyimpossibleto"proveanegative";thisisanattempttoshifttheburdenofproofbackontothenonbelieversoftheargument.TheglobalenvironmentalsituationandthatofYosemiteNationalParkarenotperfectlycorrelated,andthefactthatthetroutmayverywellberesponsibleforthedeclinecannotsimplybedismissedwithoutfurtherproof.

Insummary,thewriterfailstoestablishanycausalrelationshipbetweenglobalairandwaterpollutionandthedeclineofamphibiouslifeworldwide.Theevidencepresentedisextremelyweakatbestandnarrowlyfocusesononetinyareaoftheglobe,aswellasputtingforwardasprooftwostudiesaboutwhichalmostnothingisknown.Forastrongerargument,thewriterwouldneedtodirectlyputforthevidenceassociatingairandwaterpollutionwithnotonlythedeclineatYosemitebutalsothroughoutotherareasoftheworld.（599words）[題目]

下述文字摘自一封致某環(huán)保雜志編輯的信函："全球兩棲動(dòng)物數(shù)量的減少明顯標(biāo)志著全球性水與大氣的污染。對(duì)加利福尼亞州約塞米蒂國(guó)家公園內(nèi)兩棲動(dòng)物所作的兩項(xiàng)研究可證實(shí)我的這一結(jié)論。1915年公園內(nèi)有七個(gè)物種的兩棲動(dòng)物，每一物種都擁有豐富的種群數(shù)量。然而，1992年，在公園內(nèi)所能觀察到的兩棲動(dòng)物物種僅為四類，且每一物種的種群數(shù)量已驟然下降。約塞米蒂公園動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少被歸咎于始于1920年的將鮭魚引入公園水域的做法（眾所周知，鮭魚喜食兩棲動(dòng)物所產(chǎn)的卵）。但鮭魚的引入不可能成為約塞米蒂公園動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少的真正原因，因?yàn)樗鼰o法來解釋全球范圍內(nèi)的動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少。"

[范文正文]

在本項(xiàng)論述中，信函作者的結(jié)論是，全球性水與大氣污染已致使世界范圍內(nèi)兩棲動(dòng)物的數(shù)量減少。為了支持其論點(diǎn)，作者援引了兩份時(shí)隔75年之久的研究結(jié)果，這兩份結(jié)果據(jù)稱可證明加利福尼亞州某一公園――即約塞米蒂國(guó)家公園――內(nèi)兩棲動(dòng)物的數(shù)量銳減。此外，該作者撇開了動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少的一個(gè)已知原因，陳述道，將鮭魚引入公園（據(jù)稱，鮭魚喜食兩棲動(dòng)物所產(chǎn)的卵）這一做法不足以解釋世界范圍內(nèi)兩棲動(dòng)物數(shù)量上的減少。這一論點(diǎn)有悖于簡(jiǎn)單的邏輯，犯有一系列關(guān)鍵性的邏輯謬誤。

首先，該論點(diǎn)所依據(jù)的僅僅是世界上某一特定地點(diǎn)――即加利福尼亞州約塞米蒂國(guó)家公園――內(nèi)的兩份研究。圍繞著兩棲動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少這一問題，如果僅以世界上一個(gè)特定的地點(diǎn)為樣品，再多數(shù)量的研究也無法得出一種精確的、適用于全世界的理論。兩棲動(dòng)物的具體種類、地理狀況以及其他因地點(diǎn)而特異的變數(shù)均不允許我們作出如此一概而論的總括。一個(gè)非常具體的地點(diǎn)不能用作一個(gè)代表所有其他地點(diǎn)的模型，即使在一個(gè)特定的國(guó)家內(nèi)也不行，更不用說在整個(gè)世界范圍內(nèi)了。信函作者沒有提供任何證據(jù)將約塞米蒂公園的研究與全球環(huán)境中任何其他一處地方的任何所宣稱的效果聯(lián)系起來。其次，所提及的那兩項(xiàng)互為獨(dú)立的研究時(shí)隔75年之久。沒有證據(jù)可證明這兩項(xiàng)研究是在相同的時(shí)間跨度內(nèi)以相似的方式進(jìn)行的，或是在約塞米蒂公園完全相同的地點(diǎn)進(jìn)行的，或所使用的研究方法絕然相同。

例如，第一項(xiàng)研究可能持續(xù)了整整一年之久，且是由兩棲動(dòng)物生物學(xué)領(lǐng)域的二十五位專家共同進(jìn)行的。結(jié)果是發(fā)現(xiàn)了七大種類數(shù)目眾多的兩棲動(dòng)物。相反，第二項(xiàng)研究可能是一位高中生孤身一人所做的學(xué)校的一個(gè)科學(xué)課題，僅為期一個(gè)星期。信函作者沒有提供將此兩項(xiàng)研究進(jìn)行比較的基礎(chǔ)，從而使兩項(xiàng)研究在其廣度、范圍以及專業(yè)水準(zhǔn)方面的可比性不得而知。最后，信函作者指出，兩棲動(dòng)物種群數(shù)量的減少，已被人歸咎于1920年將鮭魚引入公園水域這一做法，但緊接著又以該論據(jù)無法解釋世界范圍內(nèi)動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少這一似是而非的依據(jù)將該論據(jù)予以否認(rèn)。信函作者論述中的這一部分漫不經(jīng)心地將一個(gè)極為相關(guān)的事實(shí)棄置不顧，即眾所周知，鮭魚喜食兩棲動(dòng)物所產(chǎn)的卵。這種"proveanegative"的嘗試往往是這樣一類人所慣用的最后伎倆，他們竭力尋找某種徒勞的嘗試，力圖去證明他們所宣稱的事物的真理。從根本上講，"proveanegative"是不可能的。這樣一種做法是試圖將論證的負(fù)擔(dān)重新轉(zhuǎn)嫁給不相信該論據(jù)的人。全球的環(huán)境情形與約塞米蒂公園的情形并不絕然對(duì)應(yīng)。鮭魚極有可能造成了兩棲動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少這一事實(shí)在缺乏進(jìn)一步證據(jù)的情況下是斷不能輕易予以否認(rèn)的。

概括而言，信函作者沒能在全球空氣和水污染與世界范圍內(nèi)兩棲生命數(shù)量減少之間建立起任何因果關(guān)系。該作者所拿出的證據(jù)充其量也是極為蒼白無力的，狹隘地將焦點(diǎn)集中在世界的一片極小的區(qū)域上，作為證據(jù)而援引的兩項(xiàng)研究幾乎不能說明任何問題。欲使其論點(diǎn)更具力度，信函作者尚需擺出直接的證據(jù)，將水和空氣污染不僅僅與約塞米蒂公園的兩棲動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少聯(lián)系起來，而且也與世界其他地方的動(dòng)物數(shù)量減少聯(lián)系起來。(5):Issue"Collegesanduniversitiesshouldoffermorecoursesonpopularmusic,film,advertisingandtelevisionbecausecontemporaryculturehasmuchgreaterrelevanceforstudentsthandoartsandliteratureofthepast."

SampleEssay

Totheextentthatcontemporarycultureis,bydefinition,current,itdoeshaveamuchmoreimmediateimpactonstudentsandpeopleingeneralthandotheartsandliteratureofthepast.Contemporaneouseventsdirectlyaffecteveryonealiveatthetimebecausetheyareoccurringatpreciselythesametimeastheindividual'sexistence.Buttoparaphraseafamousphilosopher:"Thosewhodonotlearnfromhistoryaredoomedtorepeatit."Toagreatextent,pastartsandliteratureshapewhoweareaspeopleatleastasmuchas,ifnotmorethan,contemporaryculturedoes.

Everyonealivetodayisaffectedinonewayoranotherbytheeventsofthepast.Pasteventshavedirectlyledtothewaythattheworldisshapedtoday.Theartsandliteratureareoneofthemostwell-preservedanddocumentedresourcesthatcangiveusadirectlinkintowhatactuallyhappenedinthepast.ConsiderthereligiouswritingsoftheBible,theKoranandthoseofConfucius,aswellasthoserelatedtoBuddhism,Hinduismandallotherreligions.Thesewritingsdirectlyrelateto,andinsomecasestoagreatextentcontrol,thebehaviorofhumanbeingstodayeventhoughmostwerewrittenhundredsifnotthousandsofyearsago.Artworksrelatingtothesereligionsalsohaveaprofoundeffect.ConsiderMichelangelo'sworkintheSistineChapelattheVatican,orthevastmyriadofhistoricBuddhiststatuesthroughoutAsia,ortheancientMuslimmosquesthroughouttheMiddleEastandCentralAsia.Itwouldbedifficulttoarguethatcontemporaryculturehasmorerelevancetotoday'sstudentswhencomparedwiththerelevanceoftheseexamplesofpastartsandliterature.

Attimesitisdifficulttodeterminewhatexactlyisthedifferencebetweencontemporarycultureandtheartsandliteratureofthepast.Shakespeare'sclassicwritingsarecontinuouslybeingadaptedintocurrentmoviesthatareoftenbighitswithstudentsandthegeneralpopulationasawhole.Millionsofpeopleeveryyearviewclassicworksofartinmuseumsallovertheworld.Readingsofreligioustextshavenevergoneoutofstylewithalargepartoftheworld'spopulation.Clashesbetweencenturies-oldculturesandreligions,suchasthatofWesterncountriesandIslamicextremistsandthatofHindusandMuslimsinIndia,demonstratethatthereligiousartifactsthatcouldbecalledartsandliteratureofthepastareverymuchapartofcontemporaryculture.

Whilethepastcancertainlynotbeignored,alargepartofwhatstudentsmustlearnatuniversityisbasedoncontemporaryculture.Mostreligiouslearning,atleastofone'sownreligion,occurseitherathomeorearlyoninastudent'seducation.Attheuniversitylevel,studiesofpolitics,businessandthecomputersciencesmustdealingreatdetailwiththelatestadvancesincontemporarycultureinordertoremainuptodateandrelevant.Othersubjects,suchasmathematics,agriculture,andtheartsandliteraturethemselveslooklargelytothepastforthecoreknowledgethatistaughtinthesecourses.Theapplicationoftheselessonsfromthepastareentirelyappropriatetohelpputcontemporarycultureintosometypeofhistoricalcontextthatcanhelpstudentstounderstandandcomprehendtherapidlychangingworldthattheyarelivingin.

Itwouldseemself-evidentthataproperlyeducateduniversitystudentmustfindabalancebetweenstudyingcontemporaryculturewithoutneglectingthestudyofartsandliteratureofthepast.Thestudyofoneisnotmutuallyexclusiveofthestudyoftheother.Thebenefitsofawell-roundededucationcomefromnotonlyknowingthestateoftheworldasitexiststodaybutalsoinknowinghowtheworldarrivedatthisstageofdevelopmentinthefirstplace.觀點(diǎn)陳述型作文/[題目]

"學(xué)院和大學(xué)應(yīng)該開設(shè)更多通俗音樂、電影、廣告和電視方面的課程，因?yàn)楫?dāng)代文化要比昔日的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)對(duì)于學(xué)生具有遠(yuǎn)為密切的聯(lián)系。"

[范文正文]

只要當(dāng)代文化——依照其定義——具有當(dāng)代性，它無疑比昔日的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)對(duì)學(xué)生乃至普通大眾具有一種遠(yuǎn)為直接的影響。同時(shí)代的事件會(huì)直接影響到生活在那一時(shí)代的每一個(gè)人，因?yàn)樗鼈兊陌l(fā)生與這個(gè)人的生存正值同時(shí)。但這里我們可以復(fù)述一位著名哲學(xué)家的話，"那些無法從歷史中汲取教訓(xùn)者注定會(huì)重蹈覆轍".在相當(dāng)大的程度上，昔日的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)造就了我們現(xiàn)如今的情狀，其作用即使并不甚于當(dāng)代文化，至少與當(dāng)代文化相同。生活于當(dāng)今時(shí)代的每個(gè)人以一種或另一種方式深受過去事件的影響。昔日的事件直接導(dǎo)致了世界目前的運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)方式。藝術(shù)和文學(xué)是保存和記載得最為完善的一種資源，它們能使我們與過去實(shí)際發(fā)生過的事情直接聯(lián)系起來。不妨考慮一下《圣經(jīng)》，《可蘭經(jīng)》一類的宗教著作，孔子的著述，以及那些與佛教、印度教和所有其他宗教相關(guān)的著作。這些直接地與當(dāng)今時(shí)代人們的行為相關(guān)，并在某些情形中在相當(dāng)大的程度上控制著當(dāng)今時(shí)代人們的行為，雖然它們大多數(shù)創(chuàng)作于數(shù)百年、甚至數(shù)千年之前。與這些宗教相關(guān)的藝術(shù)品同樣也產(chǎn)生了深遠(yuǎn)的影響。我們不妨考慮一下梵蒂岡西斯廷教堂內(nèi)米開朗琪羅的作品，或遍布亞洲的無數(shù)具有歷史性意義的佛教像，或者散布在整個(gè)中東和中亞地區(qū)的古代穆斯林清真寺。與這些過去的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)實(shí)例的相關(guān)性相比，當(dāng)代文化被說成與當(dāng)今學(xué)生更密切相關(guān)，這一論點(diǎn)是難以成立的。

有些時(shí)候，人們難以確定當(dāng)代文化與過去的藝術(shù)和文學(xué)的差異究竟何在。莎士比亞的經(jīng)典之作不斷地被改編成當(dāng)代電影，常常能成為學(xué)生和普通大眾的大熱門。每年，全世界數(shù)百萬人在博物館觀賞古典藝術(shù)作品。宗教文本的閱讀對(duì)于世界相當(dāng)大的一部分人口而言從來就不失為一種風(fēng)尚。數(shù)個(gè)世紀(jì)古老的文化與宗教之間的沖突，如西方國(guó)家與伊斯蘭極端主義者之間的沖突，以及印度