企業(yè)文化建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

企業(yè)文化建設(shè)外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)（文檔含中英文對照即英文原文和中文翻譯）原文:Enterpriseculture:necessaryinpromotingenterpriseStevenCarterThepaperinvestigatestheeffectsoftheZimbabweannationalcultureonenterprisedevelopment.In-depthinterviewswerecarriedoutwithfifteenentrepreneursandsevenmembersofthecommunitywhoserolewastosupportentrepreneurs.Itwasestablishedthatthenationalcultureimpededenterprisedevelopmentandthefactorsidentifiedare:baddebtculture,let's-pull-him-downsyndrome,dependencysyndrome,highliving,andabsenceofrolemodels,refusaltoacceptentrepreneurship,employingrelativesandpoorqualitygoodsandservices.Topromoteenterprisedevelopment,countriesneedtoidentifyfactorsthatmakeupthenationalculture.Thepaperalsoidentifiesthedesiredenterpriseculture.INTRODUCTIONEarlierresearchonenterprisedevelopmentmainlyfocusedonthepersonalcharacteristics/traitsoftheindividual,suchastheneedforachievement,locusofcontrol,theabilitytotakerisk,etc(McClelland,1962;McClellandandWinter,1969;Bellu,1988;Rotter,1966).Curran(1994)arguedthattraitsalonewereinadequatetoexplainentrepreneurship,andsomefoundnodirectlinkbetweentraitsandentrepreneurialbehaviour(Bird,1988;Guth,2001).Hence,furtherresearchmovedontoconsideringtheenvironmentalfactors(political,cultural,economic,regulationsandpolicies)thataffectenterprisedevelopment.Itwasarguedthatcountriesdesiringtopromoteenterprisedevelopmentneedtoaddresstheseenvironmentalfactors(Telantino,1995;UNCTAD,1995;Gnyawaii,1994;Bird,1989;Chell,1985;Vaselainen,1999).Enterprisedevelopmenthasbeenviewedasameansofreducingunemployment,easingothersocialproblemsandasthebestwayofcreatingwealthinacountry(Nolan,2003;Storey,2000).Asaresultoftheabovereasons,bothdevelopinganddevelopedcountrieshaveembracedenterprisedevelopment.Likemanyothercountries,Zimbabwehasrunenterprisedevelopmentprogrammes,createdandadoptedpoliciesaimedatcreatingaconduciveenvironmentforenterprisedevelopment.Unfortunately,theeffortstopromoteenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwehavenotbeensuccessful(Mlambo,2000;UNDP,2000).ThepaperexploresthefactorsthatmakeuptheZimbabweannationalculturerelatingtoenterprisedevelopment.Italsoestablishestheeffectsthatthesefactorshavehadonenterprisedevelopment.LITERATUREREVIEWCultureisdefinedasasetofhistoricallyevolved,learnedvalues,attitudesandmeaningssharedbythemembersofagivencommunity,thatinlluencetheirmaterialandnon-materialwayoflife(Tayeb,1988).Theseevolvethroughdifferentstagesofsocialisation,throughinstitutionslikefamily,religion,formaleducationetc.Itwasfurtherassertedthatdifferentculturesinfluenceenterprisedevelopmentdifferently(Hofstede,1991).Furthermore,othersbelievethatthenationalcultureshouldbeincludedwhendiscussingenterprisedevelopmentofthecountry(Wortzel,1997;Morrison,2000).Forexample,itwasbelievedthatenterprisedevelopmentsuccessinUSAwasasaresultofitsculturethatpromotesindividualism(DePilliseta/,1998;Wong,2001),whilefailureofenterprisedevelopmentinIrelandwasasaresultofaculturethatpromotesconformitytothestatusquo(DePillis,1998).InIndia,enterprisedevelopmentencounteredproblemsduetoaculturethatpromotedspiritualharmonyandacceptanceofdestiny(Dana,2000).Similarly,entrepreneurshiphasnotsucceededincountrieswhereithasabadimage,whereentrepreneursareviewedasgreedy,unkind,thieves,exploitersofpeopleetc(JoyantandWarner,1996;Morrison,2000;Bateman,1997).Ontheotherhand,entenrisedevelopmentsucceedsinanationthatembracesit,whereitisviewedasanoblewayoflifeandespeciallywherefailureisnotdemonisedbythesociety(Morrison,2000;Wong2001;DePillis,1998;Nolan,2003).Enterprisesuccesshasalsobeenrecordedincountrieswheretherearerolemodelswhowouldinspireothers(DePillis,1998).Rolemodelscanevenbemembersofone'simmediateorextendedfamily(Gibb,1996).Therefore,countriescanattempttopromoteenterprisedevelopmentbyacceptingandelevatingthesocietalrolemodelsandraisingthepracticalsupportgiventoentrepreneurs(Raynolds,1991;Specht,1993).Entrepreneurswhoenjoy'high-living'attheexpenseoftheirenterpriseshavedifficultiesinsucceeding(Spring,1998).Inbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries,somegraduatesdislikebeingassociatedwithworkingforSmalltoMediumEnterprises(SMEs)andself-employment.ThismakesitdifficultforsomecountriestopromoteenterpriseasitisnotacceptedbytheverypeoplewhohavethebestcapacitytosucceedasbusinesspeopleandMorrison(2000)arguesthatformaleducationsystemistobeblamedforproducingconformistsandnotentrepreneurs.Toaddressthis,Stevenson(1996)arguesthatentrepreneurshipshouldbetaughtfromayoungage,inschoolsandcolleges.Meyanathan(1994)demonstratedthedifficultiesinpromotingenterpriseinacountrythatfavoursacertaingroupofpeopleoverothers;becausetheonesfavouredwilldevelopasenseofentitlement,whilsttheneglectedresenttheentiresystem.Literatureresearchedhasdiscusseddifferentaspectsofculturethathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopment,buttherehasnotbeenacomprehensivecatalogueofthesefactorsthatmakeupanationalculturerelatingtoenterprisedevelopment.Hence,thispaperexploresthefactorsthatmakeupthenationalculture,and,inparticular,thoserelatingtoenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.RESEARCHMETHODThepaperseekstoexploreandexplaintheculturalfactorsthathavenegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Thereisneedtoanswerthequestions,whatarethenationalculturalfactorsthathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe,howhavetheyaffecteditandwhy?Hence,aninterpretiveapproachwasadopted(Carson,2001).Withininterpretivism,aqualitativeresearchapproachwasused.Thisapproachallowstheinclusionoftacitknowledgeandexperienceoftheresearcherthroughouttheresearchprocess.Basedonthequalitativeresearchmethod,non-probabilistic(purposeful)samplingwascarriedout,wheretherespondentspointedtheresearchertothenextrespondent(Remenyi,2001).Thisiscalledsnowballing.Thesamplewasmadeupoftwenty-tworespondents(elites).Allrespondentswere'elites'chosenfortheirexpertknowledge(Remenyi,1998;LincolnandGuba,1990)ofenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Amongthemwerefifteenentrepreneursandsevenrespondentswhoseoccupationsoractivitiessupportedentrepreneurs.Thepurposeforsamplingtheotherseven'elites'wastriangulation(Remenyi,1998;LincolnandGuba1990;Carson2001).Therewasneededtogetadifferentviewfromthatofentrepreneurs,thatis,thosewhosupportedtheworkofentrepreneurs(fromfinancialorganisations,developmentandtrainingorganisationsandthegovernment).Theserespondentshadsupportedentrepreneursthroughfinancing,trainingetc.foratleastsixyears.Allentrepreneursinterviewedwerebusinesspeoplewhohadstartedandmanagedtheirenterprisesformorethansixyears.Consistentwiththisresearchapproach,face-to-facein-depthinterviewswerecarriedoutusinganinterviewguide.Theinterviewguidewasbasedonthethemesthathadbeenobtainedfromliteratureandneededfurtherexploration.RespondentswereaskedtoidentifyanddiscussallfactorstheybelievedhadnegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe.Thecollecteddatawasanalysedusingthethematicanalysis,asdescribedbyMilesandHuberman(1994),andWengraf(2001).Theresearchwasconductedintwophases.Theinitialphaseculminatedinestablishingalistofculturalfactorsthathaveaffectedenterprisedevelopment.Afterthefirstroundofinterviewswiththe22respondents,theirresponseswereanalysed.Theresultswerethensubjectedtofurtherscrutinybyninerespondentswhohadtakenpartinthefirstroundofinterviews,andwhowerehencefamiliarwiththisresearchandconsideredabletoprovidethesoundscrutiny.Furthermore,aprogrammethatwasestablishedtopromoteenterprisedevelopmentwasalsoevaluatedasawayoftriangulation.Itwasawaytofindiftherewasanyconvergenceontheculturalfactorsmentionedbytheentrepreneursashavingnegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentandthosethathadaffectedtheprogramme.Therefore,thesecondroundofinterviewsandanevaluationoftheenterprisedevelopingprogrammeweretoprovidefurtherverification,awayofimprovingtrustworthinessandrigour.Theresearchmethodologyadoptedallowstheresearchertousetacitknowledgeandexperiencethroughouttheprocess;hencetherewillbeinstances(inpresentingthefindings)wheresomeassertionsarenotsourced,butareattributedtotheresearchers'knowledgeandexperienceofZimbabwe.Consistentwiththeresearchmethod,inpresentingfindingsofthisresearch,asummaryoftherespondents'viewsisprovidedandtoemphasisethispositionsomequotationsareincludedinthetextandasampleofotherscanbefoundin.Onerespondentsaid:remember,ourculturedoesnotnecessarilypromotepeoplewhosucceed.Successisnotverymuchpartofourculture.Fromtherespondents'pointofview,oneofthereasonswhyenterprisedevelopmentdidnotflourishinZimbabwewasitsnationalculture.ThefactorsthatmakeuptheZimbabweannationalcultureandhavenegativelyaffectedenterprisedevelopmentare:bad-debtculture,absenceofrolemodels,let'spull-him-downsyndrome,dependencysyndrome,poorqualitygoodsandservicedelivery,refusingtoacceptentrepreneurshipasawayoflife,employingrelatives(kithandkin)andhighliving.TheabovefactorswillnowbeelaboratedBad-debtCultureOneentrepreneursaid:peopledonotpaybackbecausethereisbaddebtculture;itisbaddebtculture,whichweneedtojight.UnitedMerchantBank(UMB)wentunder,itwentdownbecausepeoplewerenotpayingback,thoughtheownerhadwantedtohelpfellowindigenouspeople.Althoughsomerespondentsheldthisview,itshouldbenotedthatnon-paymentwasnottheonlyreasonwhyUMBwentintoliquidation.UMBwasestablishedattheheightofindigenisationandbyanindigenousentrepreneur.UMBconsidereditselfachampionofindigenisationandaccusedthetraditionalmultinationalbanksoffailingtosupportindigenousentrepreneurs.Onaweeklybasis,thisbankadvertisedinthenationalpress,theneedtoindigeniseandmadetheaccusationsmentionedabove.AccordingtoUMB,thetraditionalbanks'lendingconditionsweretoostrictandtheirdemandscouldnotbeeasilymetbymostindigenousentrepreneurs;forexample,collateralandowncontribution.Consequently,UMBurgedthemtofollowitsexampleofrelaxingtheborrowingrequirements,wherecollateralwaslessemphasisedthanotheraspectslikeprojectviabilityandmanagement.Asaresult,goodprojectproposals(onpaper)wereproduced,receivedfunding;unfortunately,moneywasnotpaidbackandwithoutcollateralthebankcouldnotrecoveritsdebtsanditwentintoliquidation.Asaresult,depositors'fundswerelost.Inshort,UMBdidnotfollowprudentlendingpractice;hence,itisasmuchtoblameastheborrowerswhofailedtopayback.UMBfailedtotakeintocognisancethebad-debtculturaldimensionamongitsborrowers.EnterpriseCulture:NecessaryInPromotingEnterpriseTherehasbeenampleevidencetosupportthisassertion.Theresearchestablishedthatin1992,thegovernmentmadeavailableZ$100milliontosupportindigenousbusinessesandthedefaultrateforthismoneywasabouttwentyeightpercent(28%).In1994,thegovernmentprovided$400millionforindigenousenterprisesandthedefaultrateforthisfacilitywasaboutthirtytwopercent(32%).In1997,theWorldBankandthegovernmentmadeanother2$700millionavailableandthedefaultratewasaboutthirtyonepercent(31%).In2000,thegovernmentavailed2$4billionasarevolvingfundforenterprisedevelopmentandby20020nly$2billioncouldberevolved,therestwaslosttobaddebtors.Thereareotherexamples,wherecertainindividualshaveborrowedfrombanksandnotpaidback.Forexample,Mr.Sibanda(nothisrealname)whoisnowawellknownpropertymogulinZimbabwe;hasborrowedhugeamountsfromdifferentbankstobuyseveralcompanies(onecompanywasashoemakingcompany,anothermanufacturingconglomerate,boughtsharesinacementmakingcompanyandothers)andhasbeenabaddebtor.Throughhispropertydevelopingcompany,hedevelopedpropertiesusingborrowedmoneyfromabuildingsocietyanddidnotpayback.Thebuildingsocietylateronwentintofinancialdifficulties(notnecessarilybecauseofhimalone)andhadtoberescuedbytheCentralBank.Theaspectofbaddebtculturerelatestothefactthatentrepreneurslikeborrowing,butnotpayingbackwhattheyborrow.Itwasestablishedthatthosewholendtotheentrepreneursfacemajorchallengesincollectingtheirdebtsfromtheborrowers.Respondentsbelievedthatmanyentrepreneursareundertheimpressionthatonecanborrowbutnotnecessarilyneedtopayback.Asaresultofthiscultureandresultantbehaviour,someprogrammes(includingdonormoneymentionedabove)thatlentmoneytoSMEshavehadhighdefaultrates.DateSource:StevenCarter.Enterpriseculture:necessaryinpromotingenterprise;less-onsfromenterprisedevelopmentinZimbabwe[J].JournalofEnterpringCulture,2006(3):P177-198譯文:企業(yè)文化：促進(jìn)企業(yè)的必備要素史蒂文?卡特本論文研究的是津巴布韋國家文化對企業(yè)發(fā)展方面的影響。以此對15位企業(yè)家及支持他們的團(tuán)體中的7位成員進(jìn)行了深度的訪問。可以確定及識別的妨礙企業(yè)發(fā)展的國家文化因素有：差的負(fù)債文化、唐氏綜合癥、獨(dú)立綜合癥、奢侈的生活及模范人物的缺失，拒絕接受企業(yè)家精神，聘用親屬以及低品質(zhì)的物品和服務(wù)。為了促進(jìn)企業(yè)發(fā)展，政府需要識別那些組成國家文化的因素。本論文同時也識別期望的企業(yè)文化。引言早期有關(guān)企業(yè)發(fā)展的研究主要是致力于個體的個人特征的研究，比如對成功的需求，操控點(diǎn)，冒險能力等等（麥克勒蘭德，1962；麥克勒蘭德和維特，1969；布魯，1988；羅特，1966）?？聜悾?994）提出單就性格來解釋企業(yè)家的領(lǐng)袖精神是不充分的，而且有人發(fā)現(xiàn)個人性格與企業(yè)家的行為無直接關(guān)系（波爾多，1988；古斯，2001）。因此，更進(jìn)一步的研究轉(zhuǎn)移到環(huán)境因素（政治、文化、經(jīng)濟(jì)、法令政策）對企業(yè)發(fā)展的影響。但政府想要促進(jìn)企業(yè)的發(fā)展需要致力于環(huán)境因素是有爭議性的。在一個國家中，企業(yè)發(fā)展已經(jīng)被認(rèn)為是一種減少失業(yè)、緩解社會問題的途徑，也是一種創(chuàng)造財富的最好方法（諾蘭,2003）。由于以上種種原因，企業(yè)發(fā)展被發(fā)達(dá)及發(fā)展中國家所歡迎。和其他國家一樣，津巴布韋已經(jīng)在經(jīng)營企業(yè)發(fā)展的計(jì)劃，制定并采用那些旨在為企業(yè)發(fā)展創(chuàng)造一個有益的環(huán)境的政策。不幸的是在津巴布韋為企業(yè)發(fā)展所做的努力是不成功的（聯(lián)合國開發(fā)計(jì)劃署,2000）。本論文研究的一些因素，它們形成津巴布韋的文化并與企業(yè)文化相關(guān)。同時也確定這些因素對企業(yè)發(fā)展有所影響。文獻(xiàn)綜述文化被定義為一系列的影響組織成員的重要的或不重要的生活方式的歷史性進(jìn)程，包括組織成員的學(xué)習(xí)價值、態(tài)度、意義（特也不1988）。這些進(jìn)化要經(jīng)歷不同的社會化階段、制度，如家庭、宗教、正式教育等。進(jìn)一步推斷，不同的文化對企業(yè)發(fā)展有不同地影響（霍夫斯泰德，1991）。而且，其他人認(rèn)為當(dāng)討論國家的企業(yè)發(fā)展時國家文化應(yīng)該被考慮到其中（沃策爾.1997；莫里森,2000）。例如，在美國企業(yè)發(fā)展的成功被認(rèn)為是促進(jìn)個人主義文化作用的結(jié)果，然而在愛爾蘭，企業(yè)發(fā)展的失敗被認(rèn)為是向權(quán)威服從的文化作用的結(jié)果。在印度，它們促進(jìn)精神和諧與對命運(yùn)的接受的國家文化使得企業(yè)發(fā)展遇到問題（Dana,2000）。相同地，企業(yè)家精神在一些國家是不被認(rèn)同的，在那里國家形象差，企業(yè)家被認(rèn)為是貪婪的、不善良、小偷、剝削者等等（莫里森2000;貝特曼，1997）。另一方面，企業(yè)發(fā)展在那些歡迎它的國家也得到成功，在那些國家它被認(rèn)為是一種高尚的人生方式而且它的失敗并未被社會妖魔化（莫里森,2000;汪2001;皮里斯，1998;諾蘭，2003）。企業(yè)成功被那些國家作為模范記錄下來以此激勵其他人（皮里斯，1998）。模范人物可以是一個成員或者整個大家庭（吉布1996）。因此，國家能夠通過吸收社會角色模范，以及提高對企業(yè)家的實(shí)際支持來促進(jìn)企業(yè)發(fā)展（芮蘭德，1991;司丕奇，1993）。以他們的企業(yè)為代價而享有奢侈生活的企業(yè)家是很難成功的（司普潤，1998）。在發(fā)達(dá)和發(fā)展中國家中，一些畢業(yè)生不喜歡為中小型或私營企業(yè)工作。由于那些有能力通過經(jīng)商獲得成功的人不接受，使得一些國家很難發(fā)展企業(yè)，毛瑞斯提出正式的教育系統(tǒng)培養(yǎng)出順從者而非事業(yè)者而被批判。為解決這個，斯蒂文森認(rèn)為企業(yè)精神應(yīng)該在學(xué)校就教給年輕人。梅雅蘭仁（1994）認(rèn)為在發(fā)展企業(yè)時，肯定集體里的某幾個人是困難的，因?yàn)楸豢隙ǖ娜藭a(chǎn)生一種優(yōu)越感，而被忽視的就會厭惡整個體制。經(jīng)研究的文獻(xiàn)已經(jīng)對影響企業(yè)發(fā)展的文化的各個方面進(jìn)行了討論，卻對那些組成與企業(yè)發(fā)展有關(guān)的國家文化的因素沒有全面的分類。因此，本論文研究這些能形成國家文化的因素，特別是在津巴布韋它們與企業(yè)發(fā)展有關(guān)。研究方法本論文找尋的是研究和解釋那些在津巴布韋影響企業(yè)發(fā)展的消極文化因素。這需要回答這些問題：在津巴布韋影響企業(yè)發(fā)展的國家文化因素是什么？它們是怎樣影響又為什么影響？因此，一種可解釋的方法被采用了（卡森,2001）。這個方法在研究過程中，研究者的隱性知識和經(jīng)驗(yàn)涉及在其中。根據(jù)定性研究方法，進(jìn)行了定性設(shè)樣，研究者由此從一個反應(yīng)進(jìn)行到下一個（雷門伊,2001）。這就叫滾雪球。這個樣本由22個受訪者組成。所有被選中的受訪者都具有津巴布韋的企業(yè)發(fā)展的專業(yè)知識（雷門伊，1998;林肯，1990）。他們中有15個企業(yè)家和7個支持企業(yè)家的受訪者。設(shè)7個其他受訪者的目的是進(jìn)行三角測量。（雷門伊，1998林肯1990;卡爾森2001）。從企業(yè)家的支持者中得到一些不同于企業(yè)家的觀點(diǎn)（如財政機(jī)構(gòu)，發(fā)展和培訓(xùn)機(jī)構(gòu)，政府等）。所有被采訪的企業(yè)家都是開始或管理他們的企業(yè)超過6年的商人。與這個研究方法同步的是通