英國(guó)文學(xué)名詞解釋大全(整理版)

名詞解釋Epic(史詩(shī))（appearedinthetheAnglo-SaxonPeriod）Itisanarrativeofheroicaction,oftenwithaprincipalhero,usuallymythicalinitscontent,grandinitsstyle,offeringinspirationandennoblementwithinaparticularcultureornationaltradition.Alongnarrativepoemtellingaboutthedeedsofgreatheroandreflectingthevaluesofthesocietyfromwhichitoriginated.Epicisanextendednarrativepoeminelevatedordignifiedlanguage,likeHomer’sIliad&Odyssey.Itusuallycelebratesthefeatsofoneormorelegendaryortraditionalheroes.Theactionissimple,butfullofmagnificence.Today,somelongnarrativeworks,likenovelsthatrevealanage&itspeople,arealsocalledepic.E.g.Beowulf（thepagan（異教徒），secular(非宗教的)poetry）Iliad《伊利亞特》，Odyssey《奧德賽》ParadiseLost《失樂(lè)園》，TheDivineComedy《神曲》Romance（傳奇）(Anglo-NormanfeudalEngland)Romanceisanyimaginativeliteraturethatissetinanidealizedworldandthatdealswithheroicadventuresandbattlesbetweengoodcharactersandvillainsormonsters.Originally,thetermreferredtoamedieval(中世紀(jì))taledealingwiththeloveandadventuresofkings,queens,knights,andladies,andincludingsupernaturalhappenings.Form:longcomposition,inverse,inproseContent:descriptionoflifeandadventuresofanobleheroCharacter:aknight,amanofnoblebirth,skilledintheuseofweapons;oftendescribedasridingforthtoseekadventures,takingpartintournaments(騎士比武),orfightingforhislordinbattles;devotedtothechurchandthekingRomancelacksgeneralresemblancetotruthorreality.Itexaggeratesthevicesofhumannatureandidealizesthevirtues.Itcontainsperilous(dangerous)adventuresmoreorlessremotefromordinarylife.Itlaysemphasisonsupremedevotiontoafairlady.①TheRomanceCycles/Groups/DivisionsThreeGroupsmattersofBritainAdventuresofKingArthurandhisKnightsoftheRoundTable（亞瑟王和他的圓桌騎士）mattersofFranceEmperorCharlemagneandhispeersmattersofRomeAlexandertheGreatandtheattacksofTroyLeMorteD’Arthur（亞瑟王之死）②ClassNature(階級(jí)性)oftheRomanceLoyaltytokingandlordwasthethemeoftheromances,asloyaltywasthecorner-stone（themostimportantpart基石）offeudalmorality.Theromanceswerecomposednotforthecommonbutforthenoble,ofthenoble,andbythepoetspatronized（supported庇護(hù),保護(hù)）bythenoble.3.Alliteration（押頭韻）:arepeatedinitial(開頭的)consonant(協(xié)調(diào),一致)tosuccessive(連續(xù)的)words.e.g.1.Tohiskinthekindest,keenestforpraise.2.Singasongofsouthernsinger4.Understatement（低調(diào)陳述）（forironicalhumor）nottroublesome:verywelcomeneednotpraise:arighttocondemn5.Chronicle《編年史》（amonumentofOldEnglishprose）6.Ballads（民謠）（ThemostimportantdepartmentofEnglishfolkliterature）①Definition:Aballadisanarrativepoemthattellsastory,andisusuallymeanttobesungorrecitedinmusicalform.AnimportantstreamoftheMedievalfolkliterature②FeaturesofEnglishBallads1.TheballadsareinvariousEnglishandScottishdialects.2.Theywerecreatedcollectivelyandrevisedwhenhandeddownfrommouthtomouth.3.Theyaremainlytheliteratureofthepeasants,andgiveanoutlookoftheEnglishcommonpeopleinfeudalsociety.③Stylistic（風(fēng)格上）FeaturesoftheBallads1.Composedincouplets（相連并押韻的兩行詩(shī),對(duì)句）orinquatrains（四行詩(shī)）knownastheballadstanza（民謠詩(shī)節(jié)）,rhymingababorabcb,withthefirstandthirdlinescarrying4accentedsyllables（重讀音節(jié)）andthesecondandfourthcarrying3.2.Simple,plainlanguageordialect（方言，土語(yǔ)）ofthecommonpeoplewithcolloquial（口語(yǔ)的，會(huì)話的）,vividand,sometimes,idiomatic（符合當(dāng)?shù)卣Z(yǔ)言習(xí)慣的）expressions3.Tellingagoodstorywithavividpresentationaroundthecentralplot.4.Usingahighproportionofdialoguewitharomanticortragicdimension（方面）toachievedramaticeffect.④SubjectsofEnglishBallads1.struggleofyounglovers2.conflictbetweenloveandwealth3.crueltyofjealousy4.criticismofthecivilwar5.mattersofclassstruggle7.Heroiccouplet（英雄雙韻體）（introducedbyGeoffreyChaucer）Definition:therhymedcoupletofiambicpentameter;averseforminepicpoetry,withlinesoftensyllablesandfivestresses,inrhymingpairs.英雄詩(shī)體/英雄雙韻體：用于史詩(shī)或敘事詩(shī)，每行十個(gè)音節(jié)，五個(gè)音部，每?jī)尚醒喉崱?.couplet（兩行詩(shī)，對(duì)句）:Twoconsecutivelinesofpoetrythatrhyme.Aheroiccoupletisaniambicpentametercouplet.DuringtheRestorationperiodandthe18thC.itwasapopularverseform.9.iambicpentameter:ApoeticlineconsistingoffiveVersefeet(penta-isfromaGreekwordmeaning“five”),witheachfootaniamb--thatis,anunstressedsyllablefollowedbyastressedsyllable.10.Rhyme（韻，押韻）:therepetition(反復(fù))ofsoundsintwoormorewordsorphrasesthatappearclosetoeachotherinapoem.E.g.river/shiver,song/long11.meter(格律)（屬于Prosody['pr?s?d?]（韻文學(xué);詩(shī)體學(xué)；(某語(yǔ)言的)韻律(學(xué))））:Agenerallyregularpatternofstressedandunstressedsyllables（音節(jié)）inpoetry.Themeterswithtwo-syllablefeetare:Iambic(x/)（抑揚(yáng)格）:ThattimeofyearthoumaystinmebeholdTrochaic(/x)（揚(yáng)抑格）:TellmenotinmournfulnumbersSpondaic(//)（揚(yáng)揚(yáng)格）:Break,break,break/Onthycoldgraystones,OSea!Themeterswiththree-syllablefeetare:anapestic(xx/)（抑抑揚(yáng)格）:Andthesoundofavoicethatisstilldactylic(/xx)（強(qiáng)弱格，長(zhǎng)短格，揚(yáng)抑抑格）:Thisistheforestprimeval,themurmuringpinesandthehemlock(atrocheereplacesthefinaldactyl)1.Script(腳本):thewrittenworkfromwhichadramaisproduced.ItcontainsstagedirectionsandDialogue2.StageDirections(舞臺(tái)指導(dǎo)):notesprovidedbytheplaywrighttodescribehowsomethingshouldbepresentedorperformedonstage3.Monologue(獨(dú)白):alongspeechgivenbyanactor4.Soliloquy(獨(dú)白):aspeechgivenbyacharacterwhoisalone(orthinksheisalone)onstage5.Aside(旁白):astatementintendedtobeheardbytheaudienceorbyasingleothercharacterbutnotbyalltheothercharactersonstage6.Act(幕):amajordivisionofadrama7.Scene(場(chǎng)):adivisionofanact.Ascenetypicallybeginswiththeentranceofoneormorecharactersandendswiththeexitofoneormorecharacters.17.Comedy(喜劇)（Dramaform）Aplaywrittenchieflytoamuseitsaudiencebyappealingtoasenseofsuperiorityoverthecharactersdepicted.Acomedywillnormallybeclosertoeverydaylifethanatragedy,andwillexplorecommonhumanfailingsratherthantragedy’sdisastrouscrimes.Itsendingwillusuallybehappyfortheleadingcharacters.E.g.（莎士比亞）RomanticComedies（theovercomingtheobstacleoflove）:AsYouLikeIt(皆大歡喜),AMidsummerNight’sDream,TheTwelfthNight,&TheMerchantofVenice（威尼斯商人）18.Tragedy（Dramaform）Aseriousplayornovelrepresentingthedisastrousdownfallofacentralcharacter,theprotagonist.AccordingtoAristotle,thepurposeistoachieveacatharsisthroughincidentsarousingpityandterror.Thetragiceffectusuallydependsonourawarenessofadmirablequalitiesinheprotagonist,whicharewastedterriblyinthefateddisaster.E.g.（莎士比亞）GreatTragedies（四大悲劇）（exploresthefaults/weaknessesofhumans）:Hamlet,Othello,KingLear&Macbeth19.dramaticRomance(tragi-comedy)（悲喜?。ㄉ勘葋啠―ramaform）:Romancesfocusontheseparationandreunionoffamiliesratherthanloveandmarriage.Endingswerecharacterizedbyhomecoming,recognition,reconciliation,andforgiveness.Theromancesaresetinmythicalworldswheresupernaturalandmagicandunlikelycoincidencesarecommonplace.E.g.Pericles《波里克利斯》,Cymbeline《辛柏林》,TheWinter’sTale《冬天的故事》,TheTempest《暴風(fēng)雨》20.Monologue（長(zhǎng)篇獨(dú)白）Anextendedspeechutteredbyonespeaker,eithertoothersoralone.Significantvarietiesincludethedramaticmonologue(akindofpoeminwhichthespeakerisimaginedtobeaddressingasilentaudience),andthesoliloquy(inwhichthespeakerissupposedtobe“overheard（偷聽(tīng)，無(wú)意中聽(tīng)到）”whilealone).21.SoliloquyAdramaticspeechdeliveredbyonecharacterspeakingaloudwhileundertheimpressionofbeingalone.Thesoliloquistthusrevealshisorherinnerthoughtsandfeelingstotheaudience,eitherinsupposedself-communion（自我反省）orinaconsciouslydirectaddress（演說(shuō)，演講）.Itisalsoknownasinteriormonologue.內(nèi)心獨(dú)白22.Thebasicplotoftheplay(Freytag’spyramid)1.Exposition(闡述，講解，說(shuō)明):providesthebackgroundinformationneededtoproperlyunderstandthestory,suchastheprotagonist,theantagonist,thebasicconflict,andthesetting.2.Risingaction（發(fā)展）:duringrisingaction,thebasicinternal（內(nèi)部）conflictiscomplicated（復(fù)雜）bytheintroductionofrelatedsecondaryconflicts,includingvariousobstaclesthatfrustratetheprotagonist'sattempttoreachhisgoal.3.Climax（高潮）:theturningpoint,whichmarksachange,forthebetterortheworse,intheprotagonist’saffairs.Ifthestoryisacomedy,thingswillhavegonebadlyfortheprotagonistuptothispoint;now,thetide,sotospeak,willturn,andthingswillbegintogowellforhimorher.Ifthestoryisatragedy,theoppositestateofaffairswillensue,withthingsgoingfromgoodtobadfortheprotagonist.4.Fallingaction:duringthefallingaction,orresolution,whichisthemomentofreversal（反向，倒轉(zhuǎn)，轉(zhuǎn)變，顛倒）aftertheclimax,theconflictbetweentheprotagonistandtheantagonistunravels,withtheprotagonistwinningorlosingagainsttheantagonist.Thefallingactionmightcontainamomentoffinalsuspense,duringwhichthefinaloutcomeoftheconflictisindoubt.5.Dénouement,resolution,orcatastrophe:compriseseventsbetweenthefallingactionandtheactualendofthedramaornarrativeandthusservesastheconclusionofthestory.Conflictsareresolved,creatingnormalityforthecharactersandasenseofcatharsis,orreleaseoftensionandanxiety,forthereader.Thecomedyendswithadénouement(aconclusion)inwhichtheprotagonistisbetteroffthanatthestory'soutset.Thetragedyendswithacatastropheinwhichtheprotagonistisworseoffthanatthebeginningofthenarrative.InShakespeare'stragedies,thedénouementisusuallythedeathofoneormorecharacters. 23.Dramaticirony(戲劇性諷刺)Dramaticirony:thewordsoractsofacharactermaycarryameaningunperceivedbythecharacterbutunder-stoodbytheaudience.ExamplesofdramaticironyinRomeoandJulietBeforeRomeodrinksthepoison,heobservesthatJulietlooksasthoughshewerealive.Romeoischeerfulbecauseofadream,buthishopesarequicklydashedbyBalthasar’snewsofJuliet’sdeath.24.BlankVerse（無(wú)韻詩(shī)）Unrhymedlinesofiambicpentameter.ItisaveryflexibleEnglishverseformwhichcanattainrhetoricalgrandeur（雄偉，壯觀）whileechoingthenaturalrhythmsofspeech.ItwasfirstusedbyHenryHoward,EarlofSurrey,andsoonbecameapopularformfornarrativeanddramaticpoetry.Marlowe,Shakespeare,Milton,Wordsworth,Tennyson,StevensandRobertFrostarefondofthisform.25.SonnetAsonnetisalyricpoemcomprising14rhyminglinesofequallength:iambicpentameterinEnglish,hendecasyllables[hen,dek?'sil?bl]（十一音節(jié)）inItalian,andalexandrines.[??liɡ?zɑ:ndrain]（亞歷山大詩(shī)行）inFrench.1.TheItalian/Petrarchan（彼得拉克）sonnetItisnamedafterFrancescoPetrarch(1304-1374),theItalianpoet.The14linesbreakintoanoctave(oroctet)of2quatrains,rhymedabbaabba(rhymedsometimesabbacddcorevenabababab);andasestet,usuallyrhymedcdecdeorcdcdcd.2.TheEnglish/ShakespeareansonnetItwasintroducedintoEnglishpoetryintheearly16thcenturybySirThomasWyatt(1503-1542).Itconsistsof3quatrainsandafinalcouplet,rhymingababcdcdefefgg.AnimportantvariantistheSpenseriansonnet,whichlinksthe3quatrainsbyrhyme,rhymingababbcbccdcdee.（quatrain:四行詩(shī)(每節(jié)四行,韻律一般為abab或abba)）26.Allegory（寓言）Astorywithadoublemeaning:aprimaryorsurfacemeaning,andasecondaryorunder-the-surfacemeaningAstorythatcanberead,understoodandinterpretedattwolevelsTwolevelsofallegoryOnelevelexaminesthemoral,philosophicalandreligiousvaluesandisrepresentedbytheRedCrossKnight,whostandsforallChristians.Thesecondlevelistheparticular,whichfocusesonthepolitical,social,andreligiousconflictsinthethenEnglishsociety.27.Typesofpoetry1)

Narrativepoetryepic,romance,andballadThestressisonaction,e.g.totellstoriesanddescribeactions;2)

LyricpoetryElegies['el?d?i:]（挽歌）,odes（頌詩(shī)，頌歌）,sonnets,epigraphs['epiɡrɑ:f]（銘文,碑文）,etc.Tocombinespeechandsongtoexpressfeelingsinvaryingdegreesofverbal（口頭的，言語(yǔ)的）music.28.essay（散文，隨筆）Asaformofliterature,theessayisacompositionofmoderatelength,usuallyinprose,whichdealsinaneasywaywiththeexternalconditionsofasubject,and,instrictness,withthatsubject,onlyasitaffectsthewriter.1.Purpose:EssaysisintendedfortheambitiousElizabethanandJacobeanyouthofupperclass,totellthemhowtobeefficientandmaketheirwayinpubliclife.Writingstyle:fourprominentqualities:preciseness,directness,tenseness,forcefulness3.Bacon’sessaysBaconoffershisviewsonawholesmorgasbordoftopicsrangingfromTruth,Death,Adversity,Marriage&theSingleLife,Love,Boldness,Superstition,Friendship,Health,Ambition,Youth,BeautytoAnger&Fame.4.FeaturesofBacon’sessaysBacon’sessaysarethefirstexampleofthatgenreinEnglishliteratureandhavebeenrecognizedasanimportantlandmarkinthedevelopmentofEnglishprose.Theessaysarefamousforthepithyaphoristicstyle,whichhehaddefendedinprincipleinTheAdvancementofLearningasproperfortheexpressionoftentativeopinions.E.g.Essays?培根論文集?“OfStudies”“OfWisdom”“OfDeath”“OfFriendship”“OfTravel”,etc.29.Metaphysical(形而上學(xué)，超自然，純哲學(xué))PoetsMETAPHYSICALPOETSrefertoaschoolofpoetsatthebeginningofthe17thcenturyEnglandwhowroteundertheinfluenceofJohnDonne.TheworksoftheMetaphysicalpoetsarecharacterized,generallyspeaking,bymysticismincontentandfantasticalityinform.ThemosteminentpoetsareJohnDonne,GeorgeHerbert&AndrewMarwell.30.MetaphysicalPoetryMetaphysicalpoetryisconcernedwiththewholeexperienceofman,especiallyaboutlove,romanticandsensual;aboutman'srelationshipwithGod,andaboutpleasure,learningandart.Metaphysicalpoemsarelyricpoemsofbriefbutintensemeditations,characterizedbythestrikinguseofwit,ironyandwordplay.Beneaththeformalstructure(ofrhyme,metreandstanza)istheunderlyingstructureofthepoem’sargument.In“ToHisCoyMistress,”theexplicitargument(Marvell'srequestthatthecoyladyyieldtohispassion)isastalkinghorseforthemoreseriousargumentaboutthetransitorinessofpleasure.Rise&FallofMetaphysicalPoetryMetaphysicalpoetrywasrarelyreadinthe17th,18thandearly19thcentury.Inthelate19thcenturyandearly20thcentury,therewasarenewedinterestinmetaphysicalpoetry.ThemodernistpoetsT.S.Eliot,JohnRansomandAllenTateclaimedtheirinfluencebyJohnDonne.SoJohnDonnebecameacultfigureintheearly20thcenturyEnglish-speakingcountries.31.Conceit（巧妙的詞語(yǔ)；別出心裁的比喻）Aconceitisafigureofspeechwhichmakesanunusualandsometimeselaboratelysustainedcomparisonbetweentwodissimilarthings.MetaphysicalconceitThistypeofconceitdrawsuponawiderangeofknowledge,anditscomparisonsareelaborately（苦心經(jīng)營(yíng)地，精巧地）rationalized.Forinstance,Donne’s“TheFlea”comparesafleabitetotheactoflove;andin“AValediction:ForbiddingMourning”separatedloversarelikenedtothelegsofacompass,thelegdrawingthecircleeventuallyreturninghometo"thefixedfoot."32.Cavalier[,k?v?'l??]Poets（?；庶h派詩(shī)人）Cavalierpoetsare,moreoftenthannot,knightsandsquires,whosidewiththekingagainsttheparliamentandthepuritansintheEnglishrevolution.Theymostlydealinshortsongsontheflittingjoysoftheday,butunderneaththeirlightheartednessliessomeforebodingofimpendingdoom.1.Writingonthecourtlythemesofloyalty,love,andbeauty,thecavalierpoetsproducedfinelyfinishedverses.2.Thecommonfactorthatbindsthecavalierstogetheristheiruseofdirectandcolloquiallanguageexpressiveofahighlyindividualpersonality,andtheirenjoymentofthecasual,theamateur（外行的，業(yè)余的）,theaffectionate（充滿深情的）poemwrittenbytheway.3.Theyare“cavalier”inthesense,notonlyofbeingRoyalists,butinthesensethattheydistrusttheover-earnest,thetoointense.4.TheleadingcavalierpoetswereRobertHerrick,RichardLovelace,SirJohnSuckling,andThomasCarew.MostwereadmirersofBenJonson.33.neoclassicism（新古典主義）ItfounditsartisticmodelsintheclassicalliteratureoftheancientGreekandRomanwriterslikeHomer,Virgil,Horace,Ovid.ApartialreactionagainstthefiresofpassionblazedinthelateRenaissance,especiallyintheMetaphysicalpoetry.---Proseshouldbeprecise,direct,smoothandflexible.---Poetryshouldbelyrical（抒情的）,epical（敘事的）,didactic（教導(dǎo)的）,satiricordramatic,andeachclassshouldbeguidedbyitsownprinciples.---Neo-classicalwritersare:JohnDryden,AlexanderPope,JonathanSwift,JosephAddison,RichardSteele,HenryFielding,SamuelJohnson,OliverGoldsmith,EdwardGibbon,etc.34.Bourgeoisie[,b???wɑ:'zi:]（中產(chǎn)階級(jí)）(the18thCenturyAgeofBourgeoisie35.EnlightenmentMovement(啟蒙運(yùn)動(dòng))Undertheinfluenceofscientificdiscoveries(Newton)andflourishingofphilosophies,Frenchenlightenmentstarted.EnlightenmentthinkerssuchasVoltaire伏爾泰,Montesquieu孟德斯鳩,Locke洛克,Hobbes霍布斯,andRousseau盧梭believedthattheworldwasanobjectofstudyandthatpeoplecouldunderstandandcontroltheworldbymeansofreasonandempirical（以觀察或?qū)嶒?yàn)為依據(jù)的）research.anintellectualmovementbeginninginFranceandthenspreadthroughoutEuropeacontinuationofRenaissanceinbeliefinthepossibilityofhumanperfectionthrougheducationtheguidingprincipleorslogan（標(biāo)語(yǔ)，標(biāo)號(hào)）isRation（定量？）/Reason,naturalrightandequality(AmericanIndependenceWarin1776;FrenchRevolutionin1789)Rationbecamestandardformeasurementofeverything.Inreligion,itwasagainstsuperstition（迷信）,intolerance（心胸狹窄）,anddogmatism（教條主義，獨(dú)斷，武斷）;inpolitics,itwasagainsttyranny（暴政，苛政）;andinsociety,itwasagainstprejudice,ignorance,inequality,andanyobstaclestotherealizationofanindividual’sfullintellectualandphysicalwell-being.Atthesametime,theyadvocated（提倡）universaleducation.Intheiropinion,humanbeingswerelimited,dualistic（二元的）,imperfect,andyetcapableofrationality（合理性，合理的行為見(jiàn)解）andperfectionthrougheducation.Thegreatenlighteners:AlexanderPope,JosephAddison,JonathanSwift,andSamuelJohnson36.Prose1)Biography（傳記）:JamesBoswell’sLifeofSamuelJohnson2)Journalism/Periodicals（期刊）:SteelsandAddison’sliteraryjournals3)Realistnovel（現(xiàn)實(shí)主義小說(shuō)）:bourgeoisinessence---subjectmatter,---readership,---didacticpurpose,---form(prose,comicepic);37.Gothicnovel(frommid-18thcentury)---Devotedtotalesofhorrorandthedarkersupernaturalforces---DerivesitsnamefromsimilaritiestoMedieval(中古的,中世紀(jì))Gothicarchitecture---GothicHorror:Athrillerdesignednotonlytoterrifyorfrightentheaudience,buttoconveyasenseofmoralfailureorspiritualdarkness.---TheGothicinEnglandbeginswithTheCastleofOtrantoin1760,byHoraceWalpole,whichemphasizedthesupernaturalmixedwiththegrotesqueinamedievalsetting.---AnneRadcliffeinMysteriesofUdolphoperfectedthesentimentalgothicinthe1790s.---Frankenstein(1817)byMaryShelley---influencedthelatergenerations:Coleridge,Keats,Dickens,Brontesisters,etc.38.Sentimentalityliterature傷感文學(xué)---Itwasapartialreactionagainstthatcold,logicrationalismwhichdominatedpeople’slifesincethelastdecadesofthe17thcentury.---Areadysympathyandaninwardpainforthemiseryofothersbecamepartofacceptedsocialmoralityandethics.---startedbySamuelRichardson’sPamelaandClarissa---representedinnovelformbyLaurenceSterne’sASentimentalJourneythroughFranceandItaly(1768)---representedinpoetryby“TheGraveyardSchool”:ThomasGray,EdwardYoung---emphasizingtheemotion/heartinsteadofration---graduallymergedintoRomanticism39.Satire:Aliterarymannerwhichblendshumorwithcriticismforthepurposeofinstructionortheimprovementofhumanity.Thenecessaryingredients---Humor---Criticism,eithergeneralcriticismofhumanityorhumannatureorspecificcriticismofanindividualorgroup.---Somekindofmoralvoice:simplymockingorcriticismisnot“satire.”ThebestandmostrepresentativeworksarefoundinthosewrittenbyPopeandSwift.AlexanderPopeMockepic:“TheRapeoftheLock”LiterarySatire:“TheDunciad”JonathanSwift“AModestProposal”Gulliver’sTravels40.TheRealisticNovelTheEnglishmiddle-classpeoplewerereadytocastawaythearistocraticromanceandtocreateanewandrealisticliteratureoftheirowntoexpresstheirideasandservetheirinterests.Thewholelifeinitsordinaryaspectsofthemiddleclassbecamethemajorsourceofinterestinliterature.Majornovelists:DanielDefoe,SamuelRichardson,HenryFielding,LaurenceSterne,OliverGoldsmith,TobiasGeorgeSmollett…41.ElementsofFiction1.Theme:thecentralideaorstatementaboutlifethatunifiesandcontrolsthetotalworkIdentifyingthethemeToavoidconfusingawork’sthemewithitssubjectorsituation.Thestatementofthemedoestheworkfulljustice.Itisfullyandcompletelysupportedbythework’sotherelements.Thetitleoftheworkoftensuggestsaparticularfocusoremphasisforthereader’sattention.2.Plot:Theactioninfiction,thearrangementofeventsthatmakeupastory.?Plotsturnonaconflict,orstrugglebetweenopposingforces,i.e.howoneactionleadsintoanother.?Structureisthedesignorformoftheaction,i.e.patternsandtheshapeofcontent.?Theclassicpattern:exposition,complication,crisis,fallingaction,andresolution3.

Character：Charactersareimaginarypeoplethatwriterscreate.?Concernedwithbeingabletoestablishthepersonalitiesofthecharactersandtoidentifytheirintellectual,emotional,andmoralqualities.?Concernedwiththetechniquestocreateanddevelopcharacters.?Concernedwithwhetherthecharactersarecredibleandconvincing.Themajor,orcentral,characteroftheplotistheprotagonist(主角).Theopponent,thecharacteragainstwhomtheprotagoniststrugglesorcontends,istheantagonist(反角).Flatcharactersarethosewhoembodyorrepresentasinglecharacteristic,trait,oridea,oratmostaverylimitednumberofsuchqualities.(typecharacters,one-dimensionalcharacters)Roundcharactersarejusttheopposite.Theyembodyanumberofqualitiesandtraits,andarecomplexmulti-dimensionalcharactersofconsiderableintellectualandemotionaldepth.Mostimportantly,theyhavethecapacitytogrowandchange.4.SettingSettingisboththephysicallocalethatframestheactionandthetimeofdayoryear,theclimaticconditions,andthehistoricalperiodduringwhichtheactiontakesplace.Thefunctionsofsetting:Settingasabackgroundforaction.SettingasantagonistSettingasmeansofcreatingappropriateatmosphere.Settingasameansofrevealingcharacter.Settingasameansofreinforcingtheme.5.PointofviewThemethodofnarrationthatdeterminestheposition,orangleofvisionfromwhichthestoryistold.CommonlyusedpointsofviewThird-personpointofviewomniscientThird-personpointofviewlimitedFirst-personpointofview6.LanguageandstyleStyleconsistsofdiction(theindividualwordsanauthorchooses)andsyntax(thearrangementofthosewords),aswellassuchwritingdevicesasrhythmandsound,allusion,ambiguity,irony,paradox,andfigurativelanguage.Eachwriter’sstyleisunique.Itconstituteshis“signature”inawaythatsetshisworkapart.42.MethodsofCharacterizationCharacterizationthroughtheuseofnames.Characterizationthroughappearance.Characterizationbytheauthor.Characterizationthroughdialogue.Characterizationthroughaction.43.Diction（措辭）:thetypeandqualityoftheindividualwordsthatcompriseanauthor’sbasicvocabulary.Thedenotativemeaningofwords,Theconnotativemeaning;Thedegreeofconcretenessorabstractness;Thedegreeofallusiveness;thepartsofspeechtheyrepresent;Thelengthandconstruction;Thelevelofusagetheyreflect(standardornonstandard;formal,informal,orcolloquial);Theimagerytheycontain;Thefigurativedevices(simile,metaphor,personification,etc)theyembody;44.Syntax['s?n,t?ks]句法;句法規(guī)則〔分析〕:Thewaystheauthorarrangeswordsintophrases,clauses,andfinallywholesentencestoachieveparticulareffects.Thelength—whethertheyareshort,spare,andeconomicalorlongandinvolved;Theform—whethertheyaresimple,compound,orcomplex;45.ConstructionofsentenceLoosesentencesthatfollowthenormalsubject-verb-objectpattern,statingtheirmainideanearthebeginningintheformofanindependentclause,Periodicsentences工整句thatdeliberately（故意地，慎重地）withhold（扣留，保留，抑制）orsuspend（暫停，終止，懸，吊）thecompletionofthemainideauntiltheendofthesentence,Balancedsentences（對(duì)杖句）inwhichtwosimilarorantitheticalideasarebalanced.46.HistoricalnovelAnovelwherefictionalcharacterstakepartinactualhistoricaleventsandinteractwithrealpeoplefromthepast.Examples:SirWalterScott:Ivanhoe,WaverlyJamesFennimoreCooper:TheLastoftheMohicans47.Romanticismpolitically:areactionagainstindustrialrevolutionandthesocialsystemliterarily:areactionagainstNeo-classicism;concernedwithimaginationandpersonalfeelinginsteadofthepowerofration/reasonphilosophically:Itstressesindividualism（個(gè)人主義）insteadofsocialorder.①Artisticfeatureverseform:lyri