語(yǔ)言輸出理論課件

語(yǔ)言輸出語(yǔ)言輸出BackgroundImmersionprogramsinCanada

ConclusionOutputMerrillSwainTheOutputHypothesisThreefunctionsFuturedirectionsTheopinionofStephenKrashenandassessmentReferencescontentBackgroundcontentBackgroundIntheearlyandmid-1980s,therearetwoaspectsofthecontextthatareimportanttomention.Oneaspectofthecontextwasthedominanttheoreticalparadigmforsecondlanguageacquisition(SLA)researchatthattime(1980s):

information-processingtheory.

The

secondwasthewidespreadgrowthofFrenchimmersionprogramsinCanada,theevaluationsofwhichwereshowingsomeratherunexpectedfindings.BACKBackgroundIntheearlyandmidImmersionprogramsinCanada

TheinitiationofFrenchimmersionprogramsinCanadainthelate1960sinfusedparentsandteacherswithrenewedenergyandexcitementabouttheteachingandlearningofFrenchasasecondlanguage(FSL).Intheseprograms,EnglishspeakingchildrenweretaughtsomeoralloftheircurriculuminFrenchbeginningwiththestartofschool(earlyimmersion),aroundgrade4or5(midimmersion),oraroundgrade6or7(lateimmersion).Evaluationafterevaluationwasconductedoftheseprograms加拿大沉浸計(jì)劃BACKImmersionprogramsinCanadaTConclusionSwain(1995)在對(duì)加拿大的法語(yǔ)沉浸式教學(xué)進(jìn)行調(diào)查時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn),課堂上教師講多聽(tīng)少,學(xué)生聽(tīng)多講少,大部分時(shí)間都用于做筆記。Swain認(rèn)為出現(xiàn)這種現(xiàn)象的重要原因之一，在于學(xué)習(xí)者缺少語(yǔ)言輸出機(jī)會(huì)，從事語(yǔ)言實(shí)踐活動(dòng)太少?；谶@些觀察，Swain得出如下結(jié)論：盡管“可理解性輸入”對(duì)語(yǔ)言習(xí)得來(lái)說(shuō)很重要，但不足以充分開(kāi)發(fā)學(xué)習(xí)者的二語(yǔ)精煉能力。要想提高中介語(yǔ)的流利程度和準(zhǔn)確性，學(xué)習(xí)者不僅需要“可理解性輸入”，也需要“可理解性輸出”。BACKConclusionSwain(1995)在對(duì)加拿大的法語(yǔ)沉

Differentinterpretationoftheword

“output”.

Inthe1980s,theword“output”wasusedtoindicatetheoutcome,orproduct,ofthelanguageacquisitiondevice.Outputwassynonymouswith“whatthelearnerhaslearned”.Therehasbeenashiftinmeaningfromthe80stonowfromoutputbeingunderstoodasanoun,athing,aproducttooutputbeingunderstoodasaverb,anaction,aprocess.BACKDifferentinterpretationoftMerrillSwain

Introduction:MerrillSwainisaProfessorintheCurriculum,TeachingandLearningDepartmentattheOntarioInstituteforStudiesinEducation(OISE)attheUniversityofToronto.Contribution:(1)Shedevelopedtheoutputhypothesis;(2)SheisalsoknownforherworkwithMichaelCanaleoncommunicativecompetence.BACKMerrillSwainIntroduction:BAC語(yǔ)言輸出假說(shuō)(TheOutputHypothesis)

針對(duì)Krashen提出的語(yǔ)言輸入假設(shè)中的不足,二語(yǔ)習(xí)得研究者Swain在1985年提出了語(yǔ)言輸出假設(shè)(theOutputHypothesis),她反對(duì)大量可理解性輸入對(duì)語(yǔ)言習(xí)得所起的決定性作用。Swain認(rèn)為,盡管理解輸入語(yǔ)對(duì)二語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)很重要,但并不能保證學(xué)習(xí)者在語(yǔ)法準(zhǔn)確性方面達(dá)到近似本族語(yǔ)者的水平。學(xué)習(xí)者只有通過(guò)使用所學(xué)語(yǔ)言才能達(dá)到這一點(diǎn)。Swain(1995)在對(duì)加拿大的法語(yǔ)沉浸式教學(xué)進(jìn)行調(diào)查時(shí)發(fā)現(xiàn),課堂上教師講多聽(tīng)少,學(xué)生聽(tīng)多講少,大部分時(shí)間都用于做筆記。BACK語(yǔ)言輸出假說(shuō)(TheOutputHypothesis)

Swain(1995)在其語(yǔ)言輸出假設(shè)中闡述了輸出對(duì)語(yǔ)言習(xí)得的作用:1.注意/觸發(fā)功能(thenoticing/triggeringfunction);2.假設(shè)驗(yàn)證功能(thehypothesisfunction);3.元語(yǔ)言功能(themeta-linguisticfunction)。ThreefunctionsSwain(1995)在其語(yǔ)言輸出假設(shè)中闡述了輸出對(duì)語(yǔ)

First,outputhasanoticing/triggeringfunction.

Theclaimhereisthatwhileattemptingtoproducethetargetlanguage(vocallyorsilently(sub-vocally)),learnersmaynoticethattheydonotknowhowtosay(orwrite)preciselythemeaningtheywishtoconvey.Inotherwords,undersomecircumstances,theactivityofproducingthetargetlanguagemaypromptsecondlanguagelearnerstonoticeorrecognizeconsciouslysomeoftheirlinguisticproblems:itmaybringtheirattentiontosomethingtheyneedtodiscoverabouttheirsecondlanguage(possiblydirectingtheirattentiontorelevantinput).Thisawarenesstriggerscognitiveprocessesthathavebeenimplicatedinsecondlanguagelearning—onesinwhichlearnersgeneratelinguisticknowledgewhichisnewforthem,orwhichconsolidatetheircurrentexistingknowledge(Swain&Lapkin1995).Therehavebeenanumberofcarefullydesigned,experimentalstudieswhichhaveexaminedtheeffectofoutputonnoticingandacquisitionofparticulartargetforms,includingSwain’sresearchandhisstudentsresearch(e.g.,Izumi2002).

First,outputhasanoticingTheclaimhereisthatoutputmaysometimesbe,fromthelearnersperspective,a“trialrun”reflectingtheirhypothesisofhowtosay(orwrite)theirintent.Mackey’s(2002)studyhasanexcellentexampleofhypothesistestingfromalearner’sperspective.Thelearnerisreactingtoaninteractionepisodeinwhichshe,anotherlearnerandateacherareinvolved.Duringthisepisode,amongotherthings,thelearneristryingtofigureoutboththemeaningof“suite”andhowtosayit.Iflearnerswerenottestinghypotheses,thenchangesintheiroutputwouldnotbeexpectedfollowingfeedback.Second,theoutputhasahypothesistestingfunctionSecond,theoutputhasahypotTheclaimhereisthatusinglanguagetoreflectonlanguageproducedbyothersortheself,mediatessecondlanguagelearning.ThisideaoriginateswithVygotsky’ssocioculturaltheoryofmind.Socioculturaltheoryisaboutpeopleoperatingwithmediatingtools.Speakingisonesuchtool.Inthiscontext,Swainhasrelabeled“output”asspeaking,writing,collaborativedialogue,privatespeech,verbalizing,and/orlanguaginginordertoescapetheinhibitingeffectofthe“conduitmetaphor”impliedintheuseoftermssuchasinputandoutput.Thethird,themetalinguistic(reflective)functionofoutputBACKTheclaimhereisthatusingl

Severaldirectionscouldbetaken.

Experimentalstudieswithinaninformationprocessingframeworkwouldseemparticularlyfruitful.Investigationofthelevelsandtypesofprocessingthatout-put,underdifferentconditions,engendersseemstometobeaparticularlyinterestingroutetopursue.Withinasocioculturaltheoryofmindframework,ethnographicandcasestudyapproacheswouldseemtobemorevaluableatthispointintime,althoughthereiscertainlyaplaceforexperimentalwork.Particularlyusefultounderstandprocessesandstrategiesofsecondlanguagelearningwillbestudiesofthecollaborativedialogueandprivatespeechoflearnersastheyworktosolvelanguage-relatedproblemstheyfaceintheirlanguageproduction.Bystudyingthecollaborativedialogueandprivatespeechoflearners,accordingtoaVygotskiansocioculturaltheoryofmind,weareobservinglearninginprogress.Ofconsiderablesocioculturalinterestareotherbroaderquestionsaboutverbalizing,orasIamnowcallingit,“l(fā)anguaging”.Languagingistheuseoflanguagetoworkthroughcognitivelycomplexthoughts.

FuturedirectionsthatresearchabouttheOutputHypothesisBACKSeveraldirectionscouldbetTheopinionofStephenKrashenTheCOhypothesisislinkedtowhatissometimescalledthe“interactionhypothesis”,thehypothesisthatweacquirelanguagefrominteractingwithothers.Asstatedinthisway,theinteractionhypothesisisvague.Apartofinteractionthatdoesnotcontributetolanguage

acquisitionistheoutputproducedbythelanguageacquirer.

astrongversionoftheinteractionhypothesis,onethatassertsthat

interactionisnecessaryforlanguageacquisition,isnotcorrect.Suchahypothesis

ofacquisitioncanoccurfromreadingandlistening.Inadditiontothe

massivedatashowingthatreadingcanpromotelanguagedevelopment,Aweakerversionoftheinteractionhypothesisisthatinteractioncanbeagoodsourceofcomprehensibleinput.

TheCOhypothesisiscloselyrelatedtothe"needhypothesis".itiswidelyassumedtobetrue,buttheneedhypothesisisnotcorrect.TheopinionofStephenKrasheStephenKrashen對(duì)COhypothesis的看法T