翻譯理論知識

《翻譯理論與實(shí)踐》考試?yán)碚摬糠謴?fù)習(xí)綱要一、翻譯定義：張培基——翻譯是用一種語言把另一種語言所表達(dá)的思想內(nèi)容正確而完好地從頭表達(dá)出來的語言活動。劉宓慶——翻譯的實(shí)質(zhì)是語際的意義變換。王克非——翻譯是將一種語言文字所包含的意思用另一種語言文字表達(dá)出來的文化活動。泰特勒——好的翻譯應(yīng)當(dāng)是把原作的優(yōu)點(diǎn)完好地移注到另一種語言，以使譯入語所屬國家的當(dāng)?shù)厝四芾斫獾匾鈺?、激烈地感覺，好像使用原作語言的人所意會、所感覺的相同。費(fèi)道羅夫——翻譯就是用一種語言把另一種語言在內(nèi)容與形式不行切割的一致中全部已表達(dá)出來的東西正確而完好地表達(dá)出來。7.卡特福德——翻譯的定義也能夠這樣說：把一種語言（SourceLanguage）中的篇章資料用另一種語言（TargetLanguage）中的篇章資料來加以取代。奈達(dá)——翻譯就是在譯入語中再現(xiàn)與原語信息最貼近的自然平等物，第一就意義而言，其次就是文體而言?！癟ranslatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesourcelanguagemessage,firstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.”---EugeneNida紐馬克——往常（固然不可以說老是這樣）

，翻譯就是把一個文本的意義按作者所想的方式移譯入另一種文字（語言）。“Translationisacraftconsistingintheattempttoreplaceawrittenmessageand/orstatementinonelanguagebythesamemessageand/orstatementinanotherlanguage.”---PeterNewmark10.“Translationistheexpressioninonelanguage(ortargetlanguage譯入語)ofwhathasbeenexpressedinanotherlanguage(sourcelanguage原語),preservingsemanticandstylisticequivalences.”---Duboisortranslatingisacommunicativeactivityordynamicprocessinwhichthetranslatormakesgreatefforttothoroughlycomprehendawrittenmessageortextinthesourcelanguageandworksveryhardtoachieveanadequateoranalmostidenticalreproductioninthetargetlanguageversionofthewrittensourcelanguagemessageortext.二、翻譯標(biāo)準(zhǔn)1.翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)歸納為要言不煩的四個字：“忠實(shí)（faithfulness

）、通暢smoothness）”。忠實(shí)指的是忠實(shí)于原文。通暢指的是譯文的語言一定符合規(guī)范、平常易懂。2.嚴(yán)復(fù)對翻譯以前提出“信（faithfulness）、達(dá)（expressiveness）、雅（elegance）”的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：“譯事三難：信、達(dá)、雅。求其信已大難矣，顧信矣不達(dá)，雖譯猶不譯也，則達(dá)尚焉?！薄疤┨乩杖瓌t”：（1）ThattheTranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork；（2）Thatthestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal；（3）ThattheTranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoforiginalcomposition.”（1）譯作應(yīng)完好復(fù)寫出原作的思想；（2）譯作的風(fēng)格和手法應(yīng)和原作屬于同一性質(zhì)；（3）譯作應(yīng)具備原作所擁有的通暢。”（譚載喜，2006）泰特勒指出，這三項原則是好的翻譯所必備的條件，它們序次的擺列是適合的、自然的，是按重要次序擺列的，假如在不得已的狀況下要犧牲某一個原則就要注意到它們的次序和比較上的重要性，決不可以顛倒主次，以犧牲思想內(nèi)容的忠實(shí)來求得譯文的優(yōu)美和流利。奈達(dá)提出了著名的“動向平等”。他對翻譯所下的定義:所謂翻譯,是在譯語頂用最貼近而又最自然的平等語再現(xiàn)源語的信息,第一是意義,其次是文體。Translatingconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesource-languagemessage,firstintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle.(Nida&Taber,1969:12).這必定義明確指出翻譯的實(shí)質(zhì)和任務(wù)是用譯語再現(xiàn)源語信息,翻譯的方法用最貼近而又最自然的平等語。紐馬克“文本中心”論：紐馬克把要翻譯的對象當(dāng)作文本，并依據(jù)語言的功能把文安分為表達(dá)型、信息型和呼喚型三大類。表達(dá)型包含嚴(yán)肅的文學(xué)作品、申明和信函等；信息型包括書本、報告、論文、備忘錄等；呼喚型包含各樣宣傳品、說明書和平常小說等。他認(rèn)為不同的文本應(yīng)當(dāng)用不一樣的翻譯方法（紐馬克把翻譯方法分為語義翻譯和社交翻譯兩種。前者重申忠實(shí)于原作“原作者”；后者重申忠實(shí)于譯作“讀者”）,不一樣的議論標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，不一樣的“等效”要求。其余翻譯標(biāo)準(zhǔn)劉重德：信達(dá)切許淵沖：信達(dá)優(yōu)；美化之藝術(shù)，創(chuàng)優(yōu)似比賽；（三美論：意美、音美、形美；等化、深入、淺化；知之、好之、樂之；發(fā)揮譯入語優(yōu)勢）傅雷：重神似不重形似錢鐘書：化境魯迅：凡是翻譯，一定兼?zhèn)鋬擅妫阂粍t自然力爭其易解，一則保存著原作的豐姿。林語堂：音美、意美、神美、氣美、形美郭沫若：好的翻譯等于創(chuàng)作三、翻譯過程理解和表達(dá)是翻譯的兩個主要步驟。譯者對原文的正確理解在翻譯過程中至關(guān)重要；譯者的表達(dá)須擁有正確力和表現(xiàn)力，語言須擁有生動性和形式美。剖析原文就是仔細(xì)辦理詞位的所指意義和聯(lián)想意義、研究句法和語篇構(gòu)造。理解和領(lǐng)悟原文是從事不論何種翻譯的基本功力。假如譯者的確理解了原文的涵義，又能駕輕就熟地駕御譯語，那么翻譯就是一個很自然的駕輕就熟的過程。翻譯的過程能夠簡單分為：理解—表達(dá)---校核三個階段，或理解---表達(dá)兩個階段。四、翻譯分類：2.從波及到的符號來看，翻譯可分為語內(nèi)翻譯（intralingualtranslation）（經(jīng)過同一語言中的一些語言符號解說另一些符號，如把古漢語譯成現(xiàn)代漢語），語際翻譯（interlingualtranslation）（經(jīng)過一種語言符號解說另一種語言符號，如把英語譯成漢語），符際翻譯（intersemiotictranslation）（經(jīng)過非語言的符號系統(tǒng)解說語言符號或用語言符號解說非語言符號，如用手勢語解說一則新聞。）從翻譯的手段來看，翻譯可分為口譯、筆譯和機(jī)器翻譯。從翻譯的題材來看明，翻譯可分為專業(yè)性翻譯（翻譯法律、科技文件、專業(yè)學(xué)術(shù)論著等）、文學(xué)翻譯（翻譯小說、詩歌、戲劇等文學(xué)作品）和一般性翻譯（翻譯各樣應(yīng)用文和新聞報導(dǎo)等）。從翻譯方式上來看，翻譯可分為全譯、摘譯和編譯。泰特勒（Tytler,1748-1814）的翻譯理論和思想主要見于《論翻譯的原則》一書。該書是西方翻譯理論的第一部專著，在書中，泰特勒提出了著名的翻譯三原則：1、譯文應(yīng)完好地再現(xiàn)原文的思想內(nèi)容(Thatthetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork.)；2、譯文的風(fēng)格、筆調(diào)應(yīng)與原文的性質(zhì)相同(Thatthestyleandmannerofwritingshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal.)；3、譯文影響原文相同流利(Thatthetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition.)

。八、常用翻譯方法、策略與技巧1.直譯與意譯（LiteraltranslationandFreetranslation）英語與漢語的語言構(gòu)造與文體構(gòu)造有相同的一面，漢譯時可照譯，即所謂“直譯”——既忠實(shí)原文內(nèi)容，又吻合原文的語言與文體構(gòu)造。因?yàn)槿藗冊诟星?，在對客觀事物的感覺及社會經(jīng)歷等方面會有相像之處，英漢語言表達(dá)中有少許相同或近似的表達(dá)方式，這些表達(dá)方式的字面意義，形象意義相同或近似，隱含意義相同，也就是說，這些表達(dá)方式的字面意義和形象意義所傳達(dá)出的文化信息是相同的，能夠互譯。“意譯”則從意義出發(fā)，只需求將原文粗心表達(dá)出來，不需過分側(cè)重細(xì)節(jié)，但要求譯文自然流利。因?yàn)槲幕氐挠绊懀诜g時沒法保存原語的字面意義和形象意義，可將原文的形象更換成另一個譯文讀者所熟習(xí)的形象，進(jìn)而轉(zhuǎn)達(dá)出原文的語用目的，譯出隱含意義。英漢兩種語言不一樣的發(fā)展歷史，民族文化，民俗習(xí)慣造成了兩個民族獨(dú)到的語言與獨(dú)到的表達(dá)方式。所以，翻譯時一定對兩種語言文化基礎(chǔ)有基本的認(rèn)識，不可以逐字翻譯。凡語言都有習(xí)慣表達(dá)，話中有話。在深入領(lǐng)悟原作的精神實(shí)質(zhì)的前提之下，不拘泥于原作的字面形式，創(chuàng)建性的表達(dá)原作思想，但不行添油加醋，改變原作的風(fēng)格。注：在翻譯界通用的方法是將“直譯”與“意譯”互相聯(lián)合。任何一篇好的翻譯作品，其實(shí)不是純真的某一種翻譯方法貫串一直，而是在保持原文內(nèi)容的正確性，不惹起歧義的狀況下，將這兩種翻譯方法在同一翻譯作品中并用，相輔相成。筆者對翻譯界的這種做法完好認(rèn)可。筆者認(rèn)為，兩種翻譯方法在任何一篇翻譯作品中都能并用的話，必定能夠譯出一部優(yōu)異的翻譯作品。2.歸化和異化（

domesticationandforeignization

）異化和歸化是在

1995年由美國翻譯理論家勞倫斯·韋努蒂（

LawrenceVenuti

）在《譯者的隱形》（TheTranslator

’sInvisibility

）一書中提出來的。從歷史上看，異化和歸化可以視為直譯和意譯的看法延長，

但又不完好等同于直譯和意譯。

直譯和意譯所關(guān)注的核心問題是如安在語言層面辦理形式和意義，

而異化和歸化則打破了語言要素的限制，

將視線擴(kuò)展到語言、文化和美學(xué)等要素。按韋努蒂（

Venuti

）的說法，歸化法是“把原作者帶入譯入語文化”，而異化法例是“接受外語文本的語言及文化差別，

把讀者帶入外國情形”。（Venuti

，1995:20）因而可知，直譯和意譯主假如限制于語言層面的價值取向，異化和歸化則是立足于文化大語境下的價值取向，二者之間的差別是不言而喻的，不可以混作一談。歸化（domestication）是指在翻譯中采納透明、流利的風(fēng)格，最大限度地淡化原文的陌生感的翻譯策略（Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:43-44）。它應(yīng)盡可能的使源語文本所反應(yīng)的世界靠近目的語文化讀者的世界，進(jìn)而達(dá)到源語文化與目的語文化之間的“文化平等”。異化（foreignization）是指偏離當(dāng)?shù)刂髁鲀r值觀，保存原文的語言和文化差別（Venuti，2001:240）；或指在必定程度上保存原文的異域性，成心打破目口號言慣例的翻譯Shuttleworth&Cowie，1997:59）。它主張在譯文中保存源語文化，豐富目的語文化和目的語的語言表達(dá)方式。用平常的語言歸納，即歸化法要求譯者向譯語讀者聚攏，采納譯語讀者習(xí)慣的譯語表達(dá)方式，來傳達(dá)原文的內(nèi)容；異化法例要求譯者向作者聚攏，采納相應(yīng)于作者使用的原語表達(dá)方式，來傳達(dá)原文的內(nèi)容。注：異化時不阻礙譯文的通暢易懂，歸化時不失掉原文的滋味，同時，我們應(yīng)堅持對語言形式采納歸化的策略，而對其文化要素進(jìn)行異化辦理。這樣，譯文作品可兼兩策略之長而避其短，使二者有共同發(fā)展的空間。由此，在實(shí)質(zhì)翻譯過程中歸化與異化應(yīng)當(dāng)是相輔相成，并有互補(bǔ)的辯證一致關(guān)系。翻譯理論知識綱要第一部分：翻譯術(shù)語1.DefinitionsoftranslationTranslation

can

be

roughly

defined

as

areproduction

orrecreation

inonelanguageofwhatiswritten

orsaidinanotherlanguage.Beingaverycomplicatedhumanactivity,itswholepictureisnevereasytodescribe.Scholarswithdifferentacademicbackgroundshaveattemptedtodefineitfromvariousperspectives.(1).LinguisticViewsonTranslationTranslationtheoristsfromthelinguisticschoolconceiveoftranslationasalinguisticactivityandsomebelievethattranslationtheoryisabranchoflinguistics,approachingtheissuesoftranslatingprimarilyfromtheviewpointofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweensourceandtargettexts.Translationmaybedefinedasthereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(thesourcelanguage)byequivalenttextualmaterialinanotherlanguage(thetargetlanguage).(Catford,1965:20).Translationtheoryderivesfromcomparativelinguistics,andwithinlinguistics,itismainlyanaspectofsemantics;allquestionsofsemanticsrelatetotranslationtheory.(Newmark,1982/1988:5).(2).CulturalViewsonTranslationIntheculturalapproach,translationisregardednotonlyasatransferoflinguisticsigns,butalsoasacommunicationofcultures,.translationisan"interculturalcommunication";hencethetermsof"interculturalcooperation","acculturation",and"transculturation".翻譯不單波及語言問題,也波及文化問題。譯者不單要認(rèn)識外國的文化,還要深入認(rèn)識自己民族的文化。不單這樣,還要不停地把兩種文化加以比較,因?yàn)檎鎸?shí)的平等應(yīng)當(dāng)是在各自文化中的含義、作用、范圍、感情色彩、影響等等都是相當(dāng)?shù)?。翻譯者一定是一個真實(shí)意義的文化人。人們會說：他一定掌握兩種語言;的確這樣,可是不認(rèn)識語言中間的社會文化,誰也沒法真實(shí)掌握語言(王佐良,1989)。(4).SemanticViewsonTranslationThisviewfocusesonthesemanticequivalencebetweenthetwolanguages,aswellexpressedbyEugeneNida(1986):"Translatingmeanstranslatingmeaning".Translationisrenderingthemeaningofatextintoanotherlanguageinthewaythattheauthorintendedthetext(Newmark,1988:5).Semantictranslation:thetranslatorattempts,withinandsemanticconstraintsofthetargetlanguage,tocontextualmeaningoftheauthor(Newmark,1982:22).

thebaresyntacticreproducethepreciseInsemantictranslation,greaterattentionispaidtorenderingtheauthor'soriginalthought-processesintargetlanguagethantoattemptingtore-interpretsourcetextinawaywhichthetranslatorconsidersmoreappropriateforthetargetsetting(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:151).(5).FunctionalViewsonTranslationFunctionalistsbelievethattranslationisaspecificformofhumanactionwithacertainpurpose,akindoflinguisticserviceprovidedtotheshouldtakeintoaccounttheneedsoftheclient,?thereaderaswellasthepurposeoruseofthetranslation:Itisnotthesourcetext,oritseffectsonthesource-textrecipient,orthefunctionassignedtoitbytheauthor,thatdeterminesthetranslationprocess,buttheprospectivefunctionorpurposeofthetargettextasdeterminedbytheinitiator's,'sneeds(Baker,2001:236).(6).CommunicativeViewsonTranslationThisapproachviewstranslationasacommunicativeprocesswhichtakesplacewithinasocialcontext.Communicativetranslation:thetranslatorattemptstoproducethesameeffectonthetargetlanguagereadersaswasproducedbytheoriginalonthesourcelanguagereaders(Newmark,1982:22).Communicativetranslationisgenerallyorientedtowardstheneedsofthetargetlanguagereaderorrecipient.Atranslatorwhoistranslatingcommunicativelywilltreatsourcetextasamessageratherthanamerestringoflinguisticunits,andwillbeconcernedtopreservesourcetext'soriginalfunctionandtoreproduceitseffectonthenewaudience(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:21).Theaboveviewshelpustounderstandthecomplexnatureoftranslation.Sincetherearemanyfactorswhichaffectthetranslationprocess,translationisacomplicatedhumanactivity.2.TranslationCriteriaPutForwardbyFamousTranslatorsorTranslationTheoristsSomewell-knowntranslatorsortranslationtheoristsathomeandabroadhaveputforwardcriteriatojudgethequalityofatranslation.(1).嚴(yán)復(fù)(1853-1921):TriplePrincipleofTranslation信(faithfulness):忠實(shí)正確達(dá)(expressiveness}:通暢水利雅(elegance):文字古雅YanFuputforwardthis"Three-characterGuide”inhisprefacetothetranslationof.Huxley'sbookEvolutionandEthicsandOtherEssays(《天演論》譯例言1898):譯事三難信達(dá)雅。求其信己大難矣。顧信矣不達(dá)。雖譯猶不譯也。則達(dá)尚焉......易曰修辭立誠。子曰辭達(dá)而已。又曰言之無文，行之不遠(yuǎn)。三者乃文章正軌。亦即為譯事模范。故信達(dá)而外，求其爾雅。此不單期以行遠(yuǎn)已耳。實(shí)則精理微言。用漢從前字法句法，則為達(dá)易。用近世利俗文字，則求達(dá)難。常常抑義就詞，毫厘千里。審擇于斯二者之間，夫固有所不得已也。豈釣奇哉。......Translationhastodothreedifficultthings:tobefaithful,expressive,andelegant.Itisdifficultenoughtobefaithfultotheoriginal,andyetifatranslationisnotexpressive,itistantamounttohavingnotranslation.Henceexpressivenessshouldberequiredtoo.TheBookofChangessaysthatthefirstrequisiteofrhetoricistruthfulness.Confuciussaysthatexpressivenessisallthatmattersinlanguage.Headdsthatifone'slanguagelacksgrace,itwon'tgofar.Thesethreequalities,then,arethecriteriaofgoodwritingand,Ibelieve,ofgoodtranslationtoo.Hencebesidesfaithfulnessandexpressiveness,Ialsoaimatelegance.Istriveforelegancenotjusttomakemytranslationstravelfar,buttoexpresstheoriginalwriter'sideasbetter,forIfindthatsubtlethoughtsarebetterexpressedinthevocabularyandsyntaxofpre-Hanprosethanthoseofthevulgarwritingsoftoday.Usingthelatteroftenleadstodistortionofmeaning,which,howeverslight,resultsinvastmisunderstanding.Weighingtheprosandcons,Ioptedfortheformer,asamatterofnecessity,nottryingtobedifferentYanFu’sfirsttwocriteriaofbeingfaithfultotheoriginaltextincontentandbeingexpressiveintranslationaregenerallyacceptable,buthisinterpretationof"elegance"hasarousedplentyofcriticismbecause,inhisopinion,onehastoresorttothevocabularyandsyntaxofpre-Hanprosetoachieve"elegance".YanFu'scriteriaarealsocontroversialforhisemphasisontheequalstatusofthethreeconflicingprinciples.Despitethis,Yan’scriteriaarestillpopularinChina,buttheinterpretationofhiscriteriahaschanged.Nowadaystomanytranslators,"elegance"implies"thesafeandsoundpreservationofthetasteandshadeoftheoriginal”(黃龍,1988:90)or"運(yùn)用讀者所最樂于接受的文體,使譯文得以寬泛流傳，擴(kuò)大影響"(勞隴，《翻譯通信》1983年第10期).(2).魯迅信（faithfulness)順smoothness)(3).林語堂忠實(shí){faithfulness)通暢(smoothness)美(beautifulness)翻譯的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)問題，大概包含三方面。我們可依三方面的序次議論。第一是忠實(shí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，第二是通暢標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，第三是美的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。這翻譯的三層標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，與嚴(yán)氏的"譯事三難"，大概上是正對比符的。(4).傅雷:神似(resemblanceinspirit)以成效而論，(文學(xué))翻譯應(yīng)當(dāng)像臨畫相同，所求的不在形似而在神似。(《高老頭》重譯本序，1951)(5).錢鐘書：化境(reachingtheacmeofperfection)文學(xué)翻譯的最高境地是"化"，把作品從一國文字轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)榱硪粐淖?，既能不因語文習(xí)慣的差別而露出僵硬勉強(qiáng)的印跡，又能完好保存原有的風(fēng)昧，那就算得入于"化境"。十七世紀(jì)有人贊嘆這種成就的翻譯，比為原作的"投胎轉(zhuǎn)世"(thetransmigrationofsoul),軀殼換了一個，而精豐采致依舊故我。換句話說，譯本對原作應(yīng)當(dāng)忠實(shí)得以致于讀起來不像譯本，因?yàn)樽髌吩谠睦锝^不會讀起來像經(jīng)過翻譯似的。(《林紓的翻譯》，1964)(6).

劉重德：信（faithhlness達(dá)（expressiveness切（closeness)

））信于內(nèi)容(tobefaithfultothecontentoftheoriginal);達(dá)如其分(tobeasexpressiveastheoriginal);吻合風(fēng)格(tobeasclosetotheoriginalstyleaspossible).(《渾金璞玉集》，1994:9)(7).許淵沖：三重標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(threelevelsofcriteria)(《翻譯的藝術(shù)》，1984:26)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)低標(biāo)準(zhǔn)中標(biāo)準(zhǔn)高標(biāo)準(zhǔn)內(nèi)容忠實(shí)(信)明確正確精準(zhǔn)(三似)意似形似神似(三化)淺化等化深入形式通暢(達(dá))易懂通暢揚(yáng)長(雅,或傳神)(8).AlexanderFraserTytIer(泰特勒):ThreePrinciplesofTranslationAlexander,afamousBritishtranslationtheorist,putforwardtheclassicalcriteriainhisEssayonthePrinciplesofTranslation(1790):1)Thetranslationshouldgiveacompletetranscriptoftheideasoftheoriginalwork(譯作應(yīng)當(dāng)完好傳達(dá)原作的思想)；2)Thestyleandmannerofwritinginthetranslationshouldbeofthesamecharacterwiththatoftheoriginal(譯作的風(fēng)格與筆調(diào)應(yīng)當(dāng)與原作保持一致)；Thetranslationshouldhavealltheeaseoftheoriginalcomposition(譯作應(yīng)當(dāng)和原作相同流利).Tytlerfurtherpointsoutthattheabove-saidarrangedandrankedaccordingtotheorderoftheirwhentheyarenotsimultaneouslyattainable,theatthesacrificeofthethirdprinciple,thenthesecond.

threeprinciplesaresignificance,andthat,firstshouldbeheldto(9).EugeneA.Nida(奈達(dá)):FunctionalEquivalence(功能平等)Eugene,afamousAmericantranslationtheorist,putforwardhisrecentinterpretationoffunctionalequivalenceinhisLanguageandCulture:ContextinTranslating(2001:87):1)Aminimal,realisticdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:Thereadersofatranslatedtextshouldbeabletocomprehendittothepointthattheycanconceiveofhowtheoriginalreadersofthetextmusthaveunderstoodandappreciatedit.(最低限度而又吻合實(shí)質(zhì)的功能平等定義：譯文讀者對譯文的理解應(yīng)當(dāng)達(dá)到能夠想像出原文讀者是如何理解和領(lǐng)悟原文的程度).2)Amaximal,idealdefinitionoffunctionalequivalence:

Thereadersofatranslatedtextshouldbeabletounderstandandappreciateitinessentiallythesamemannerastheoriginalreadersdid.(

最高限度符合理想的功能平等定義：譯文讀者應(yīng)當(dāng)能夠基本上依據(jù)原文讀者理解和領(lǐng)悟原文的方式來理解和領(lǐng)悟譯文).3.Classificationoftranslation(1).Jakobson(1896-1982)Intralingualtranslationorrewordingisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofothersignsofthesamelanguage.2)??Interlingualtranslationortranslationproperisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsomeotherlanguage.3)??Intersemiotictranslationortransmutationisaninterpretationofverbalsignsbymeansofsignsofnonverbalsignsystems..原文：子曰：“學(xué)而時習(xí)之，不亦樂乎!有朋友自遠(yuǎn)方來，不亦樂乎!人不知而不慍，不亦君子乎!”譯文一:孔子說:“學(xué)習(xí)了而常常復(fù)習(xí)，不也快樂嗎！有朋友從遠(yuǎn)方來，不也快樂嗎!他人不認(rèn)識我，我其實(shí)不惱恨，不也是君子嗎”(徐志剛譯)譯文二:TheMastersaid，"Tolearnandatduetimestorepeatwhatonehaslearnt，IsthatnotafterallapleasureThatfriendsshouldcometoonefromafar,IsthisnotafteralldelightfulToremainunsouredeventhoughone’smeritsareunrecognizedbyothers,Isthatnotafterallwhatisexpectedofagentleman(Waley譯)[議論]原文同譯文一之間的變換屬于語內(nèi)翻譯(intralingualtranslation),即用同一語盲的其余語言符號對原文迸行闡釋或許重述(rewording)。原文同譯文二之間的變換屬于語際翻譯(interlingualtranslation)，即兩個不一樣語言之間所進(jìn)行的變換。原文：A:WhatdoesyourwatchsayItsays“fivepastthree”.[議論]在這一對話中，B其實(shí)是在迸行一種翻譯，這種翻譯叫做符際翻譯(intersemiotictranslation)，即語言同非語言符號之間的代碼變換。當(dāng)A詢問B幾點(diǎn)鐘的時候，B只好看鐘或許看腕表，而鐘或許腕表其實(shí)不可以說話，B只好依據(jù)鐘表的時針和分針來確立詳細(xì)兒點(diǎn)鐘了。而B所言其實(shí)是語言傳達(dá)一個非語言信息(non-linguisticmessage)。將非語言信息用語言傳達(dá)出來是翻譯的一種方式，這不是從一種語言到另一種語言的變換過程，而是從非語言社交系統(tǒng)到語言社交系統(tǒng)的過程。非語言社交系統(tǒng)和語言社交系統(tǒng)的共同特色是二者都屬于"符號系統(tǒng)"(即用于社交的系統(tǒng))。雅可布遜Jakobson)將這種由非語言社交系統(tǒng)到語言社交系統(tǒng)的變換過程稱為符際翻譯是適合的。其實(shí)，我們每一個人每天、每一刻都在迸行著符際翻譯而不自知也。從這個意義上說，我們每一個人都是某種意義上的譯者(Hervey1995:8-9).(2).PeterNewmark(紐馬克):CommunicativeandSemanticTranslation(交際翻譯與語義翻譯)PeterNewmark,afamousBritishtranslationtheorist,putforwardhisconceptsofcommunicativeandsemantictranslationinhisApproachestoTranslation(1982/1988:39):1)Communicativetranslationattemptstoproduceonitsreadersaneffectascloseaspossibletothatobtainedonthereadersoftheoriginal.(社交翻譯力爭對譯作讀者產(chǎn)生盡可能靠近原作讀者所獲取的成效).Semantictranslationattemptstorender,ascloselyasthesemanticandsyntacticstructuresofthesecondlanguageallow,theexactcontextualmeaningoftheoriginal.(語義翻譯力爭在譯作語言的語義結(jié)構(gòu)和句法構(gòu)造同意的狀況下，譯出原作在上下文中的正確意義).4.NatureandScopeofTranslationWhatistranslationSomepeoplebelieveitisascience,otherstakeitasanart,andyetmanyconsideritacraft,orrather,askill.Ofthesevariedopinions,whichoneholdstrueforourpurposeTheanswerdependsonhowweunderstandorinterprettheword"translation",fortheveryword"translation"itselfisambiguous,andtheChineseequivalent"'fanyi"soundsevenfuzzier.Fanyi,inChinese,mayeitherstandforasubjectofthecurriculum,ajobpeopleengagein,apieceofliterarywork,orthetranslatingorinterpretingworkitself.Sometimes,"fanyi"mayevenrefertothetranslatororinterpreterhimself/herself.Iftheword"translation"referstoasubject,namely,thestudyoftranslationtheoryandskills,itisnodoubtascience,justasanysubjectis,withitsownrules,lawsandprinciplesforthetranslatorstoabideby;however,ifitreferstosomespecificpiecesoftranslation,thenitismorelikeanart,witheachpiecemanifestingitsowncharmsandstyleinthecreativehandsofthetranslator;whereas,ifitreferstoaprocess,inwhichsomethingistranslated,thenwemayregarditasacraftorskill.Forunlikeanybranchofnaturalscience,theprocessoftranslationhasitspeculiarity,andnoneofitsrulesandprinciplesareuniversallyapplicable.Besides,itentailsalotofpractice—particularcraftsmanshipandskillsaredisplayedbythetouchesofdifferenttranslators.Translationcoversaverybroadrange.Intermsoflanguages,itcanbedividedintotwocategories:fromnativelanguagesintoforeignlanguagesandviceversa;intermsofthemode,itcanbedividedintooralinterpretation,writtentranslationandmachinetranslation;intermsofmaterialstobetranslated,thereistranslationofscientificmaterials,translationofliteraryworkssuchasnovels,stories,prose,poetry,drama,etc.,translationofpoliticalessayssuchastreatisesonsocialproblems,reports,speeches,etc.,andtranslationofpracticalwriting(asofficialdocuments,contractsandagreements,notices,receipts,etc.);intermsofdisposal,itcanbeeitherfull-texttranslation（全文翻譯）,abridgedtranslation（摘譯）oradaptedtranslation（編譯）.5.PrinciplesorCriteriaofTranslationTheso-calledprinciplesandcriteriaoftranslationareactuallythetwosidesofthesamething.Theformerlaysemphasisonthetranslator,whoshouldfollowthemwhiletranslating;whilethelatteronthereaderorcritic,whomayusethecriteriatoevaluatetranslationworks.WheneverprinciplesorcriteriaoftranslationareunderdiscussioninChina,YanFu’s"three-characterguide",whichwasfirstproposedin1898,wouldevokecontroversy,namely,theprincipleof"信、達(dá)、雅"(faithfulnessexpressivenessandelegance).InthepastdecadesMr.Yan'sregardedasaplumb-line

principleoftranslationhasbeengenerallyformeasuringtheprofessionalleveloftranslationandagoalfortranslatorstostriveafter.However,intheapplicationofthisprinciple,peoplehavecometofindsomelimitationstothethreecharactersandputforwardavarietyofnewstandardsinstead.Threekindsofopinionsareexpressedontheprincipleoffaithfulness,expressivenessandelegance.Thefirstgroupmaintainstheoriginalthreecharacters,andinthemeantime,addssomenewconceptstothecharacter雅".Accordingtothem,"雅"meansfarmorethantheEnglishword"elegance".Apartfromthetraditionalinterpretation,italsomeansclassicism,theadherencetotheoriginalstyleandflavor.Thesecondgroup,however,arguesthattheword"雅"isoutofplaceintranslation.WhileadoptingthefirsttwocharactersofMr.YanFu'sprinciple,itdiscardsthecharacter"雅"andtriestofindsomeothernewcriteriainstead.Noticeably,therearerevisionssuchas"信、達(dá)、切"(faithfulness,expressivenessandcloseness),"信、達(dá)、貼"(faithfulness,expressivenessandfitness),andsoon.Thethirdgroupofpeople,bycastingawaythethree-wordguide,proposesomenewprinciplesorcriteriaoftranslationoftheirown.Ofthevariouspopulartheoriestwoofthemaremostinfluential:spiritualconformity(神似)andsublimatedadaptation(化境).Theformer,proposedbyFuLeiemphasizesthereproductionofthespiritortheflavoroftheoriginal,whilethelatter,advocatedbyQianZhongshu,focusesonthetranslator'ssmoothandidiomaticChineseversionforthesakeoftheChinesereader.Despitethevarietyofopinions,twocriteriaarealmostunanimouslyaccepted,namely,thecriterionoffaithfulness/accuracy（忠實(shí)、正確)andthatofsmoothness(流利).Wemayalsotakethesetwocriteriaastheprinciplesoftranslationingeneral.Byfaithfulness/accuracy,wemeantobefaithfulnotonlytotheoriginalcontents,totheoriginalmeaningandviews,butalsototheoriginalformandstyle.Bysmoothness,wemeannotonlyeasyandreadablerendering,butalsoidiomaticexpressioninthetargetlanguage,freefromstiffformulaandmechanicalcopyingfromdictionaries.6.LiteralTranslationandFreeTranslationTheprocessoftranslationconsistsoftwophases:comprehensionandexpression.Generallyspeaking,comprehensionisofforemostimportance,andexpressionisthenaturalconsequenceofthoroughcomprehension.However,inthepracticeoftranslationwemayfindthatnowandthensomewordsintheirusualsensesareverydifficulttodealwithbecauseofthedisparitybetweentheEnglishandtheChineselanguages.Inthiscase,wehavetoresorttosomespecialmeansoftranslation.Literaltranslationandfreetranslationaretwousefulapproachesindealingwithsuchawkwardsituations.Theso-calledliteraltranslation,superficiallyspeaking,means"nottoaltertheoriginalwordsandsentences";strictlyspeaking,itstrives"tokeepthesentimentsandstyleoftheoriginal".Ittakessentencesasitsbasicunitsandtakesthewholetext(discourse)intoconsiderationatthesametimeinthecourseoftranslation.Furthermore,itstrivestoreproduceboththeideologicalcontentandthestyleoftheoriginalworksandretainsasmuchaspossiblethefiguresofspeech.TherearequitealotofexamplesofsuccessfulliteraltranslationthathavebeenadoptedasidiomaticChineseexpressions.Forexample,crocodile'stears,armedtotheteeth,chainreaction,gentlemen'sagreement,andsoon.Similarly,someChineseidiomsalsofindtheirEnglishcounterpartsthroughliteraltranslation.Forexample,紙老虎(papertiger),一國兩制(onecountry,twosystems),andsoon.Freetranslationisanalternativeapproachwhichisusedmainlytoconveythemeaningandspiritoftheoriginalwithouttryingtoreproduceitssentencepatternsorfiguresofspeech.Thisapproachismostfrequentlyadoptedwhenitisreallyimpossibleforthetranslatortodoliteraltranslation.Forexample:·Adam'sapple喉結(jié)·atsixesandsevens烏七八糟·Itrainscatsanddogs.大雨如注·Don'tcrossthebridgetillyougettoit.不用擔(dān)憂過早。自尋煩憂)·Doyouseeanygreeninmyeye你認(rèn)為我是天真可欺的嗎

(不用TheaboveillustrationscannotbetranslatedChineserenditionwouldmakenonsenseatall

literally，otherwise，the，letalonetheoriginalmeaning.Literaltranslationandfreetranslation,however,arerelativeconcepts.Inotherwords,thereisnoabsolute“l(fā)iteral”，norentirely"free"versioninthepracticeoftranslation,andoveremphasizingeitherofthemwouldresultinridiculousconsequences.Let'sscrutinizethefollowingtwopracticalcases.OriginalEnglish1Ilovetigercat,thenuclearfamily

Britishmoviesonpublictelevision,(HelenSnow，MyChinaYears)

，fluffy

blouses,ChineseVersionA:我愛虎貓,(愛)電視上放映的英國電影，有絨毛的短衫，核心家庭，ChineseVersionB:我喜愛豹貓,喜愛公共電視臺播放的英國電影，喜愛蓬松、柔嫩的棉毛衫，喜愛一夫一妻制的家庭，Comment:Apparently,thesetwoChineseversionsarefarfrombeingperfect.Otherthingsaside,therenderingofthephrasenuclearfamilyposesaseriousproblemofrepresentation.VersionArenders"thenuclearfamily"as"核心家庭"bymeansofliteraltranslation.However,thisversionistoostiff,thereforeitfailstoconveytheoriginalmeaningtotheChinesereader—formostChinese,theyhavehardlyanyideawhat"核心家庭"reallymeans.VersionBadoptstheapproachoffreetranslationandputsitinto"一夫一妻制"；evidentlyitgoestoofaranddistortstheauthor'soriginalintention,andindoingso,thetranslatorabusesthepracticeoffreetranslation.Infact,thenuclearfamilyhasnothingtodowitheitheroftheversions.AcloseexaminationofitsdefinitioninanEnglish-Englishdictionaryshedslightonthisphrase:nuclearfamily,afamilygroupthatconsistsonlyoffather,motherandchildren.Therefore,theproperrenderingofthephraseshouldbewordstothiseffect:acozysmallfamily,namely,theChineseequivalent"小家庭".OriginalEnglish2:MaoTse-tungwaswellbred,butinsidehewasmadeofsteel,ofhardresistance,oftoughtissue—thekindoftissuetheBoxersthoughttheyhadbymagic,andbaredtheirsolarplexusestoforeignbullets.(ibid.

)ChineseVersionA:毛澤東有很好的修養(yǎng)，內(nèi)部是鋼，有堅毅的抗力，是堅韌的資料制成的。這是義和團(tuán)假想的因?yàn)樯窳碛械?，能夠把腹部袒胸給外國人的子彈的那種資料。ChineseVersionB:毛澤東修養(yǎng)有素，精神支柱鐵鑄鋼打，不怕高壓，是由堅韌的組織組成的。這種組織，就是義和拳認(rèn)為他們經(jīng)過魔法獲取的那種組織袒胸露體，刀槍不入。Comment:Theword"tissue"canhardlyberenderedintoChineseeitherinliteraltranslationorfreetranslation，norcouldthemetaphor"insidehewasmadeofsteel"beproperlyrenderedwithoutgraspingtheessenceofthewholesentence.However，sincethereisnocorrespondingexpressionsinChinese,thetranslatorstacklethemaccordingtotheirownunderstanding.InversionA，"tissue"isfreelyrenderedas"資料"(material)，whileversionBliterallyas"組織"(organictissue)—bothfailtoconveytheoriginalmeaningandattitudeofthewriter.Byadoptingtranslationskillssuchasamplification,omission，conversionandrestructuring，wemaytranslatetheoriginalEnglishsentenceasfollows:RevisedVersion:毛澤東表面文質(zhì)彬彬，但心里深處卻鋼鑄鐵打，既堅韌，又抗壓—在他的身上能夠看到當(dāng)年義和團(tuán)自信所擁有的那種神力，面對洋槍洋炮也敢袒胸露懷。Fromtheaboveanalysis,wecometotheconclusionthatthere

isnoobviousdistinctionbetweenliteraltranslationandfreetranslation,norisitnecessarytodistinguishonefromtheother.Thekeypointfor

atranslatortograspistocomprehendtheoriginalthoroughly,andthenputitintoidiomaticChinese.Intheprocessoftranslation,specificapproachessuchasliteralorfreetranslationmaybeofsomehelp,butweshouldavoidthetwoextremes.Intheapplicationofliteraltranslation,weshouldendeavortoridourselvesofstiffpatternsandrigidadherencetotranslationrules,tryingtobeflexible;whileinthepractice

offreetranslation,weshouldbecautiousofsubjectivity,avoidinggroundlessaffirmationorarbitraryfabrication.Whateverthecircumstances,

wemayalternateorcombinethesetwoapproacheswhenitisnecessary.7.OmissionOmissionisatechniqueoppositetoamplification.True,atranslatorhasnorighttosubtractanymeaningfromtheoriginalwork.Butitdoesnotfollowthatheshouldrefrainfromomittinganywordsatallintranslation.Infact,oneofthemarkeddifferencesinsyntaxbetweenEnglishandChineseisthedisparityinwording.Whatisregardedasanaturalorindispensableelementinonelanguagemayberegardedassuperfluousoreven"astumblingblock"intheother.TakethefollowingEnglishsentenceanditsChineseversionforexample:OriginalEnglish:Thetime-keepingdevicesofelectronicwatchesaremuchmoreaccuratethanthoseofmechanicalones.ChineseVersion:電子表比機(jī)械表正確得多。AcomparisonbetweentheChineseversionwiththeEnglishoriginalshowsthatmanyofthe"redundant"EnglishwordshavebeenomittedintheChinesetranslation,otherwise,theChinesesentencewouldsoundwordyandunnatural.Therefore,amanipulationofthetechnique"omission"isalwayscalledforinEnglish-Chinesetranslation.Ontheotherhand,someChinesesentences,whentranslatedintoEnglish,alsoneedtoberidofredundantwordingsoastoconformtoidiomaticEnglishexpressions.8.ConversionConversion,oneofthecommonlyadoptedtranslationtechniques,meansthechangeofpartsofspeechintranslation.OwingtothesyntacticaldifferencesbetweenEnglishandChinese,itisusuallyimpossibleforatranslatortokeeptotheoriginalpartofspeechintheprocessoftranslation.Forexample:OriginalEnglish:Thiswatchnevervariesmorethanasecondinamonth.ChineseVersion:這塊表一個月的偏差從不超出一秒鐘。TheEnglishverb"varied"canhardlyberenderedintoChinesebythesamepartofspeechwithoutspoilingtheoriginalmeaning.Asamatteroffact,awordbelongingtoacertainpartofspeechinonelanguagesometimeshastobeconvertedintoadifferentpartofspeech,soastobringforthareadableandcoherentsentence.9.RestructuringRestructuring,asoneofthetranslationtechniques,meanstheorinevitablechangeofwordorderinasentenceaccordingtotheusageofthelanguagetobetranslatedinto.Itisalsocalledrearrangementorinversion.

necessary10.Hypotacticvs.Paratactic(

形合與意合

)Hypotaxis(形合法)isthedependentorsubordinateconstruction

orrelationshipofclauseswithconnectives,forexample,Ishalldespairifyoudon'tcome.Englishsentencebuildingisfeaturedbyhypotaxis.Parataxis(意合法)isthearrangingofclausesoneaftertheotherwithoutconnectivesShowingtherelationbetweenthem,forexample,Therainfell;theriverflooded;thehousewashedaway.Chinesesentencebuildingisfeaturedbyparataxis.11.Foreignizing

Translation

and

DomesticatingTranslation(1).ForeignizingTranslationForeignizingtranslationlaysgreatemphasisonretainingtheculturalflavorsofthesourcelanguageandenablesthereadertohaveanalienreadingexperience,thusdevelopingthereader'sawarenessofculturaldifferences.Topromoteculturalexchangeandmutualunderstandingbetweenpeoplesofdifferentlanguagesandcultures,foreignizingtranslationisafarbetterchoicethandomesticatingtranslation.Inthiswaywecanbetterunderstandthesource-languagecultureandenrichChinesemodesofexpression.Theweaknessofforeignizationisthattheculture-specificexpressionsthustranslatedmaynotbefamiliartoourreadersorsmoothenoughforustoreadwithease.Inthiscase,asemantictranslationoranexplanatorynotemaybeadded.However,whatisunfamiliaratpresentmaygraduallybecomefamiliarasmoreandmoreintercultural

communicationstakeplace,

oraspeoplereadmoreandmoresuchtranslated

expres