英語語言學(xué)概論Chapter6Syntax

英語語言學(xué)概論Chapter6Syntax第一頁，共49頁。6.1definitionofsyntax:howthewordsofalanguagecanbecombinedtomakelargerunits,suchasphrases,clauses(分句)andsentences.Itstudiestheinterrelationshipsbetweenelementsofthesentencestructureandtherulesgoverningtheproductionofsentences第二頁，共49頁。Finite(有限的)numberofwordsandsmallsetofrulescancreateinfinitenumberofsentencesSyntacticknowledge:theintuitionofnativespeakersabouthowwordsarecombinedtobephrasesandsentences.第三頁，共49頁。6.2Grammar:syntaxandmorphologyGrammarstudiesthemorphologicalandsyntacticrulesoflanguage.Itexcludesphonetics,phonology,semantics.Grammarincludesmorphologyandsyntax;MorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandwordformationprocessesSyntaxdealswiththesentencestructuresandproducton.Statically(靜態(tài)的):sentencestructure;dynamically:sentencegeneration.第四頁，共49頁。6.3syntagmatic,paradigmaticandhierarchicalrelations6.3thesyntagmaticrelationshipreferstothelinearrelationshipbetweentheconstituents(成分)(syntagmsorsyntagmas組成成分).HeisfromAmericaSetsofsyntagmaticallyrelatedconstituentsarecalledstructure第五頁，共49頁。Paradigmaticrelationsorassociativerelationsreferstothesetofrelationsalinguistcunithaswithotherunitsinaspecificcontext.ParadigmaticrelationsholdbetweenanitemandsimilaronesthatcanappearinthesamepositioninasequenceParadigmaticrelatonsholdbetweenthelinguisticelementswithinasentenceandthoseoutsidethesentence.第六頁，共49頁。Classesofparadigmaticallyrelatedelementsarecalledsystem,like“personsystem(人稱系統(tǒng))I/you/he/we/you/theylikedtheplay.Syntacticcategories(句法范疇)refertothelinguisticformsthathaveparadigmaticrelations.Theyincludelexicalcategories(詞匯范疇)andnon-lexicalcategories.第七頁，共49頁。Lexicalcategories:Noun(N):book,table.Verb(V);hit,tellAdjective(Adj):good,badAdverb(Adv):greatlyDeterminer(Det)(限定詞):a,this,his,Preposition(P):oninconjunction(Conj);andifInterjection(Int)(感嘆詞):oh,ah第八頁，共49頁。Phrasalcategories:Nounphrase(NP):abookVerbphrase(VP):singasongAdjectivephrase(AP):verygoodAdverbphrase(ADVP):verywell,Auxiliaryphrase(AUX)(助動詞):tense,model,perf,prog:be,may,Prepositionalphrase(PP):intheroom第九頁，共49頁。Hierarchicalstructure(層次結(jié)構(gòu))refertotheinnerlayering(內(nèi)部層次關(guān)系)ofsentences,thatis,sentencesconsistingofphrasesandphrasesinturnarecomposedofwords.HierarchicalstructurecanbeanalysedbyICanalysis,labeledICanalysis,phrasemarkersandlabeledbracketing.第十頁，共49頁。6.4ICAnalysis,….ICAnalysisofsentences:todividethewordsofasentenceintotwogroups,andthendivideeachgroupintosub-groupsandsoon,untilthesinglewordsofthesentencesareobtained.ItisamajorfeatureofBloomfieldianStructuralistlinguistics(布龍菲爾德結(jié)構(gòu)主義語言學(xué)的主要特征)第十一頁，共49頁。

SheisfromAmerica

She+isfromAmerica

is+fromAmerica

from+AmericaImmediateconstituents:UltimateconstituentsConstituents:alltheformsexcepttheoneatthetop---thesentenceitself第十二頁，共49頁。OneadvantageofICAnalysisistorevealstructuralambiguity(結(jié)構(gòu)性歧義)naughtyboysandgirls

naughty+boysandgirls

boys+and+girlsnaughtyboysandgirlsnaughtyboys+and+girlsNaughty+boys第十三頁，共49頁。

Theyareflyingplanes

They+areflyingplanes

are+flyingplanes

flying+planes

(這些飛機是正在飛行的飛機)Theyareflyingplanes

They+areflyingplanesareflying+planes

are+flying(他們在駕駛或乘飛機)Theyarevisitingrelatives第十四頁，共49頁。DotheICAnalysisofthefollowingsentences:LittleTomrunsveryfast.Theseapplesareverysweet.Hisbrotherstayedathome.HisbrotherbeatlittleJohn.第十五頁，共49頁。LittleTomrunsveryfast.LittleTom+runsveryfastLittle+Tom

runs+veryfastvery+fast

Thoseapplesareverysweet.Thoseapples+areverysweetThose+apples

are+verysweet

very+sweet第十六頁，共49頁。Hisbrotherstayedathome.Hisbrother

+stayedathome

His+brother

stayed+athome

at+home

ThatboybeatlittleTonyThatboy+beatlittleTony

That+boy

beat+littleTony

little+Tony第十七頁，共49頁。AstheICanalysisshowthatthesefoursentenceshavethesamestructuresuperficially,ICanalysisshouldbemodified.LabeledICAnalysis:tolabelthegrammaticalcategoriesofeachconstituentsandthesentences.第十八頁，共49頁。

LittleTomrunsveryfast./SLittleTom/NP+runsveryfast/VPLittle/Adj+Tom/Nruns/V+veryfast/ADVP

very/Adv+fast/Adv

Thoseapplesareverysweet./sThoseapples/NP+areverysweet/VPThose/Det+apples/Nare/V+verysweet/APvery/Adv+sweet/Adj第十九頁，共49頁。

Hisbrotherstayedathome./SHisbrother

/NP+stayedathome/VP

His/Det+brother/Nstayed/V+athome/PPat/P+home/N

ThatboybeatlittleTony/SThatboy/NP+beatlittleTony/VPThat/Det+boy/Nbeat/V+littleTony/NPlittle/Adj+Tony/N

第二十頁，共49頁。AstheICAnalysisistooredundant(重復(fù)的)andtroublesome,thephrasemarkers(短語標(biāo)記法)areadvanced.LittleJohnrunsverfastThoseapplesareverysweet.Hisbrotherstaysathome.ThatboybeatlittleJohn.第二十一頁，共49頁。Labeledbracketing(方括標(biāo)記法):

[s[NP[Detthe][Napples]][VP[Vare][AP[ADVP[Advvery]][Adjsweet]]]]第二十二頁，共49頁。ConstituencyandDependencyConstituency(成分關(guān)系):Itistodivideasentenceintoaseriesofconstituentswhichcanbeanalysedintofurtherconstituentsuntilnofurtherdivisionispossible.Constituentsstructureanalysisisahierarchicalanalysisshowingthedifferentconstituentsatdifferentstructurallevels.第二十三頁，共49頁。Dependencygrammar(依存語法)asrepresentedbyLucienTesniereistodescribedependencystructuresofsentences,thatis,thestructureofdependencyrelationsbetweentheelementsofasentence.Inasyntacticconnectionbetweentwoelementsoneisthegoverningelement(支配因素)andtheotheristhedependentelement(依存因素).Whenagoverningelementisdependentonanothergoverningelement,ahierarchicaldependecystructurewillresults.Inasentence,theabsolutegovernoristheverb.第二十四頁，共49頁。6.6TGGrammar(轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法)Staticstudyoflanguagedealswithonlysurfacestructure(表層結(jié)構(gòu));dynamicstudyoflanguagedealswithbothsurfacestructureanddeepstructure.Sentencegeneration(句子的生成)alwaysstartswiththedeepstructureandthentransformsitintosurfacestructure.第二十五頁，共49頁。Deepstructuresaregeneratedbyphrasestructurerules(短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則)whilesurfacestructuresarederivedfromthedeepstructurebythetransformationalrules.

第二十六頁，共49頁。Thewholeprocesscanberepresentedby:

Phrasestructurerules↓↓deepstructure↓↓T-rules↓↓surfacestructure第二十七頁，共49頁。Thesamesurfacestructure:

Theturkey(火雞)isreadytoeat.differentdeepstructure:a:Theturkeyitselfisreadytoeatsomething.

(turkeyisthelogicalsubjectofeat)bTheturkeyasadishisreadyforpeopletoeat.(turkeyisthelogicalobjectofeat)第二十八頁，共49頁。Twosurfacestructuremayhavethesamedeepstructure:theboybrokethewindow.Thewindowwasbrokenbytheboy.Samestructures:Theproblemiseasytofollow.第二十九頁，共49頁。Diffenrences:Surfacestructurescorresponddirectlytothelineararrangementsofsentences;whiledeepstructurescorrespondtothemeaningfulgroupingofsentences.Surfacestructuresaremoreconcretewhiledeepstructuresaremoreabstract.Surfacestructuresgivetheformsofsentenceswhereasdeepstructuresgivethemeaningsofsentences第三十頁，共49頁。4surfacesrtucturesarepronounceable(havephoneticforms)butdeepstructuresarenot.第三十一頁，共49頁。6.6.2phrasestructurerules

→”consistof”or”isrewrittenas”():optionalconstituents(可有成分);compulsoryconstituents;{}要么S→NPAUPVPHeisworking.NP→(Det)(AP)NthoseoldbooksAP→{(AP)/(ADVP)}AdjveryoldVP→V{(NP)(PP)(S)/(AP)(ADVP}runfast,gettotheschool第三十二頁，共49頁。PP→PNPintheboxAUX→Tense(Modal)(Perf)(Prog)Tense→{present/past}wasisModal→can,may,must,will,shall,could…Perf→have-EN(完成體)Prog→be-ING(進(jìn)行體)第三十三頁，共49頁。VPhastwoparts:thebaseformandinflectinalendingswhichbelongtotheauxiliaryphrase:tense,modal,perf,prog.第三十四頁，共49頁。6.6.3transformationalrules(轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則):totransformdeepstructuresintosurfacestructures,whichinvolvesaseriesofT-rules.ThemoreT-rulesareapplied,themoreconcretethestructurebecomesandthecloseritistoitssurfacestructure.第三十五頁，共49頁。

deepstructure↓byT-rules(1)modifiedstructure(1)↓byT-rules(2)modifiedstructure(2)……↓….byT-rules(n)surfacestructure

第三十六頁，共49頁。EachT-ruleperformsoneortwoofthefollowingthreeoperations:rearrangingtheelementsofthestructure;addinganewelement;deletinganelementfromthestructure.Eachtransformationalruleconsistsoftwoparts:structuraldescription(SD);structuralchange(SC).Inthedescription,X,Y,Zcanbeusedasthevariables(變量)第三十七頁，共49頁。1T-Affixhopping(時態(tài)詞綴跳換):SD:X

Affix

V

Y1234SC:13242T-Passive(被動態(tài)轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則)SD:NP1

AUX

V

NP2

Y12345SC:42+be-en3+by15第三十八頁，共49頁。3T-Agentdeletion(施事刪除)SD:NP2

AUX+be-EN

V

+byNP1

X12345SC:123O54T-Negation(否定轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則)SD:XTense{modal/have/be}Y123SC12+not3第三十九頁，共49頁。5T-DoinsertionSD:X

Tense

Y123(Tenseisnotfollowedby{modal/have/be})SC:12+do36T-YesorNoquestion(是否問句)SD:NP

Tense{Modal/have/be}

X123SC:213第四十頁，共49頁。7T-Wh-wordquestion(特殊疑問句):T-Wh-wordinsertion→T-YesorNOquestion(→T-Doinsertion)→T-Wh-wordswitching→T-Affixhopping8T-Reflexive(反身代詞):SD:NP1

X

NP2(NP1=NP2)123SC12Reflexive第四十一頁，共49頁。9T-Imperative(祈使句)SD:Y

Present

V

X(Y=you)1234SC:O234OfalltheT-rules,T-Affixhoppingisobligatorywhileothersareoptional.Practice第四十二頁，共49頁。Theorderingoftransformationalrules:

Iftheorderingisnotfollowed,thetransformationwillproduceill-formedsentencesorbeb