考研英語基礎(chǔ)真題分類匯總

1986年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Itwouldbeinterestingtodiscoverhowmanyyoungpeoplegotouniversitywithoutanyclearideaofwhattheyaregoingtodoafterwards.(71)Ifoneconsiderstheenormousvarietyofcoursesoffered,itisnothardtoseehowdifficultitisforastudenttoselectthecoursemostsuitedtohisinterestsandabilities.(72)Ifastudentgoestouniversitytoacquireabroaderoflife,toenlargehisideasandtolearntothinkforhimself,hewillundoubtedlybenefit.(73)Schoolsoftenhavetoorestrictinganatmosphere,withitstimetablesanddisciplines,toallowhimmuchtimeforindependentassessmentoftheworkheisaskedtodo.(74)Moststudentswould,Ibelieve,profitbyayearofsuchexplorationofdifferentacademicstudies,especiallythose“allrounders”withnoparticularinterest.Theyshouldhavelongertimetodecideinwhatsubjecttheywanttotaketheirdegrees,sothatinlaterlife,theydonotlookbackandsay,“Ishouldliketohavebeenanarchaeologist.IfIhadn’ttakenadegreeinModernLanguages,Ishouldn’thaveendedupasaninterpreter,butit’stoolatenow.Icouldn’tgobackandbeginalloveragain.”(75)Thereis,ofcourse,anothersidetothequestionofhowtomakethebestuseofone’stimeatuniversity.(76)Thisisthecaseofthestudentwhoexcelsinaparticularbranchoflearning.(77)HeisimmediayacceptedbytheUniversityofhischoice,andspendshisthreeorfouryears ingaspecialist,emergingwithafirst-classHonourDegreeandverylittleknowledgeofwhattherestoftheworldisallabout.(78)Ittherefore esmoreandmoreimportantthat,ifstudentsarenottowastetheiropportunities,therewillhavetobemuchmoredetailedinformationaboutcoursesandmoreadvice.Onlyinthiswaycanwebesurethatwearenottohave,ontheonehand,abandofspecialistsignorantofanythingoutsideoftheirownsubject,andontheotherhand,aneverincreasingnumberofgraduatesqualifiedinsubjectsforwhichthereislittleornodemandintheworkingworld.1987年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Havetherealwaysbeencities?(71)Lifewithoutlargeurbanareasmayseeminconceivabletous,butactuallycitiesarerelativelyrecentdevelopment.Groupswithprimitiveeconomicsstillmanagewithoutthem.Thetrend,however,isforsuchgroupstodisappear,whilecitiesareincreasingly ingthedominantmodeofman’ssocialexistence.(72)Historically,citylifehasalwaysbeenamongtheelementswhichformacivilization.Anyhighdegreeofhumanendeavorandachievementhasbeencloselylinkedtolifeinanurbanenvironment.(73)Itisvirtuallyimpossibletoimaginethatuniversities,hospitals,largebusinessesorevenscienceandtechnologycouldhavecomeintobeingwithoutcitiestosupportthem.Tomostpeople,citieshavetraditionallybeentheareaswheretherewasaconcentrationofcultureaswellasofopportunity.(74)Inrecentyears,however,peoplehavebegunto eawarethatcitiesarealsoareaswherethereisaconcentrationofproblems.WhathashappenedtothemodernAmericancity?Actually,theproblemisnotsuchanewone.Longbeforethiscenturystarted,therehadbegunatrendtowardtheconcentrationofthepooroftheAmericansocietyintothecities.Eachgreatwaveofimmigrationfromabroadandfromtheruralareasmadetheproblemworse.Duringthiscentury,therehasalsobeenthedevelopmentoflargesuburbanareassurroundingthecities,fortherichprefertoliveintheseareas.Withinthecities,sectionsmaybesharplydividedintohighandlowrentdistricts,the“rightsideoftown”andtheOfcourse,everyonewantstodosomethingaboutthisunhappysituation.Butthereisnoagreementastogoals.Neitheristhereanysystematicapproachorintegratedprogram.Opinionsareasdiverseasthepeoplewhogivethem.(75)Butonebasicdifferenceofopinionconcernsthequestionofwhetherornotthecityassuchistobep .Perhapstransportationandthemeansofcommunicationhavereallymadeitpossiblefortheretobeanendtothebigcities.Ofcourse,thereistheproblemofpersuadingpeopletomoveoutofthemoftheirownfreewill.(76)Andthereisalsotheobjectionthatthecityhasalwaysbeenthecorefromwhichculturaladvancementhasradiated.Isthis,however,stillthecasetodayinthepresenceofeasytransportationandcommunication?Doescultureariseasaresultofpeoplelivingtogethercommunally,orisittootheresultofdecisionsmadeatthelevelofernmentandthecommunicationsItisprobablytruetosaythatmostpeopleprefertopreservethecities.Somethinkthatthecitiescouldbecleaneduportotallyrebuilt.Thisiseasytosay;itwouldnotbesoeasytodo.(77)Tobesure,agreatrebuildingprojectwouldgivejobstomanyofthosepeoplewhoneedthem.Livingconditionscouldnothelpbutimprove,atleastforawhile.Butwouldtheproblemsreturnaftertherebuildingwascompleted?Nevertheless,withthemajorityofthepeoplelivinginurbanareas,theproblemofthecitiesmustbesolved.(78)Fromagreementonthisgeneralgoal,wehave,unfortunay,inthepastproceededtodisagreementonspecificgoals,andfromtheretototalinaction.Atthebasisofmuchofthisinactionisanold-fashionedconcept--theideahumanconditionswillnaturallytendtoregulatethemselvesforthegeneralgoal1988年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分SeatedbehindthefrontdeskataNewYorkfirm,thereceptionistwasStylishlydressed,thefirm’snewestemployeehadapleasant ephonevoiceandanaturalcharmthatputclientsatease.Thecompanywaspleased:(61)Clearly,thiswasawhotookconsiderablepridein alappearance.DavidKing,thereceptionist,isunusual,butbynomeansunique.(62)Justasalltruckdriversandconstructionworkersarenolongernecessarilymen,allsecretariesandreceptionistsarenolongerautomaticallywomen.Thenumberofmeninwomen-dominatedfieldsisstillsmallandtheyhaven’tattractedtheattentionthathasoftenfollowedwomenadvancingintomale-dominatedfields,butmenaremovingintomoreandmorejobsthathavetraditionallybeenheldbywomen.Strictlyspeaking,thephenomenonisnotnew.Forthepastseveraldecades,menhavebeenquietlyenteringfieldssuchasnursing,socialworkandelementaryeducation.Buttodaynojobseemsoff-limits.Menservecoffeeinofficesandmealsonairplanes.(63)Thesechangesareheltoinfluencesomeofthelong-standingtraditionsaboutthetypesofworkmenandwomencando--buttheyalsoproducesomeundeniableproblemsforthemenwhoareenteringthosefieldsformerlydominatedbywomen.Whatkindsofmenventureintotheseso-called“women’sfields”?Allkinds.(64)“Idon’tknowofanydefiniteanswersI’dbecomfortablewith,”explainsJosephPleck,Ph.D.,oftheWellesleyCollegeCentreforResearchonWomen.becausethearmyhadtrainedhimasamedicalworker.(65)“Ifoundthatworkveryinteresting.”herecalled,“andwhenIgotoutoftheserviceitjustseemednaturalformetogointosomethingmedical.Iwasn’treallyinterestedin ingadoctor.”Thirty-five-year-oldDavidKing,anout-of-workactor,foundajobasareceptionistbecausehewashavingtroublelandingrolesinBroadwayplaysandheneededtopaytherent.(66)Inotherwords,menenter“female”jobsoutofthesameconsiderationfor interestandeconomicnecessitythatmotivatesanyonelookingforwork.Butsimilaritiesoftenendthere.Meninfemale-dominatedjobsareconspicuous.Asagroup,theirworkhistoriesdifferinmostrespectsfromthoseoftheirfemalecolleagues,andtheyarefrequentlytreateddifferentlybythepeoplewithwhomtheyareinprofessionalcontact.Thequestionnaturallyarises:Whyaretherestillapproximayninety-ninefemalesecretariesforeveryonemale?Thereisalsoamoreseriousissue.Mostmendon’twanttobereceptionists,nurses,secretariesorsewingworkers.Putsimply,thesearenotgenerallyconsideredverymasculinejobs.(67)Tochoosesuchalineofworkistoinviteridicule.“Therewaskiddinginthebeginning,”recallsOrmont.“KidscomingfromschoolaskwhatIam,andwhenIsay‘Anurse,’theylaughatme.Ijustsandsay,‘Youknow,therearefemaledoctors,too.’”Still,thereareencouragingsigns.Yearsago,malegradeschoolteacherswereasrareasmalenurses.Todaymorethanoneelementaryschoolteacherinsixismale.(68)Canweanticipateadaywhensecretarieswillbeanevenmixofmenand--orwhenthementionofamalenursewillnolongerraiseeyebrows?It’sprobably--butnotvery1989年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分WhenJaneMathesonstartedworkatAdvancedElectronicsInc.12yearsago,(61)shelabouredoveramicroscope,hand-weldingtinyelectroniccomputersandturnedout18perhour.Nowshetendsthecomputerizedmachinerythatturnsouthighcapacitymemorychipsattherateof2,600perhour.Productionisup,profitsareup,her eisupandMrs.Mathesonsaystheworkisfarlessstrainonhereyes.ButthemostsignificanteffectofthechangesatAEIwasfeltbytheworkerswhoarenolongerthere.Beforethenewcomputerizedequipmentwasintroduced,therewere940workersattheplant.Nowthereare121.(62)Aplantfollow-upsurveyshowedthatoneyearafterthelayoffsonly38%ofthereleasedworkersfoundnewemploymentatthesameorbetterwages.Nearlyhalffinallysettledforlowerpayandmorethan13%arestilloutofwork.TheAEIexampleisonlyoneofhundredsaroundthecountrywhichforgeinligentlyaheadintothelatesttechnology,butleavethemajorityoftheirworkersbehind.(63)Itsbeginningsobscuredbyunemploymentcausedbytheworldeconomicslow-down,thenewtechnologicalunemploymentmayemergeasthegreatsocio-economicchallengeoftheendofthe20thcentury.Onecorporationeconomistsaysthegrowthof“machinejobreplacement”hasbeenwithussincethebeginningoftheindustrialrevolution,butneveratthepaceitisnow.Thehumancostswillbeastonishing.(64)“It’shumiliatingtobedoneoutofyourjobbyamachineandthereisnowaytofightback,butitistheefforttofindanewjobthatreallyhurts.”Someworkers,likeJaneMatheson,areretrainedtohandlethenewequipment,butoftenawholenewsetofskillsisrequiredandthatmeansanew,andinvariablysmallersetofworkers.(65)Theoldworkers,trappedbytheirlimitedskills,oftenneverregaintheiroldstatusandemployment.Manydriftintomarginalareas.Theyfeelnoprideintheirnewwork.Theygetbadlypaidforitandtheyfeelmiserable,butstilltheyareluckierthanthosewhoneverfindit.(66)Thesocialcostsgofarthewelfareandunemploymentpaymentsmadebytheernment.Unemploymentincreasesthechancesofdivorce,childabuse,andalcoholism,anewfederalsurveyshows.Someexpertssaytheproblemisonlytemporary...thatnewtechnologywilleventuallycreateasmanyjobsasitdestroys.(67)ButfuturologistHymenSeymoursaystheastonishingefficiencyofthenewtechnologymeanstherewillbeasimpleanddirectnetreductionintheamountofhumanlaborthatneedstobedone.“Weshouldtreatthisasanopportunitytogivepeoplemoreleisure.Itmaynotbeeasy,butsocietywillhavetoreachanewunanimityonthedivisionanddistributionoflabor,”Seymoursays.Hepredictsmostpeoplewillworkonlysix-hourdaysandfour-dayweeksbytheendofthecentury.Buttheconcernoftheunemployedisfornow.(68)Federallyfundedtrainingandfreeback-to-schoolprogramsforlaid-offworkersareunderway,butfewexpertsbelievetheywillbeabletokeepupwiththepaceofthenewtechnology.Forthenextfewyears,forasubstantialportionoftheworkforce,timesaregoingtobeverytoughindeed.1990年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Peoplehavewonderedforalongtimehowtheir Itisnoteasytoexplainwhyone isinligentandanotherisnot,orwhyoneiscooperativeandanotheriscompetitive.Socialscientistsare,ofcourse,extremelyinterestedinthesetypesofquestions.(61)Theywanttoexplainwhywepossesscertaincharacteristicsandexhibitcertainbehaviors.Therearenoclearanswersyet,buttwodistinctschoolsofthoughtonthematterhavedeveloped.Asonemightexpect,thetwoapproachesareverydifferentfromeachother.Thecontroversyisoftenconvenientlyreferredtoas“naturevs.nurture.”(62)Thosewhosupportthe“nature”sideofthe believethatour andbehaviorpatternsarelargelydeterminedbybiologicalfactors.(63)Thatourenvironmenthaslittle,ifanything,todowithourabilities,characteristicsandbehavioriscentraltothistheory.Takentoanextreme,thistheorymaintainsthatourbehaviorispre-determinedtosuchagreatdegreethatwearealmostcompleyernedbyourinstincts.Thosewhosupportthe“nurture”theory,thatis,theyadvocateeducation,areoftencalledbehaviorists.Theyclaimthatourenvironmentismoreimportantthanourbiologicallybasedinstinctsindetermininghowwewillact.Abehaviorist,B.F.Skinner,seeshumansasbeingswhosebehaviorisalmostcompleyshapedbytheirsurroundings.(64)Thebehavioristsmaintainthat,likemachines,humansrespondtoenvironmentalstimuliasthebasisoftheirbehavior.Letusexaminethedifferentexplanationsaboutonehumancharacteristic,inligence,offeredbythetwotheories.(65)Supportersofthe“nature”theoryinsistthatwearebornwithacertaincapacityforlearningthatisbiologicallydetermined.Needlesstosay:Theydon’tbelievethatfactorsintheenvironmenthavemuchinfluenceonwhatisbasicallyapredeterminedcharacteristic.Ontheotherhand,behavioristsarguethatourinligencelevelsaretheproductofourexperiences.(66)Behavioristssuggestthatthechildwhoisraisedinanenvironmentwheretherearemanystimuliwhichdevelophisorhercapacityforappropriateresponseswillexperiencegreaterinlectualdevelopment.Thesocialandpoliticalimplicationsofthesetwotheoriesareprofound.(67)IntheUnitedStates,blacksoftenscorebelowwhitesonstandardizedinligencetests.Thisleadssome“nature”proponentstoconcludethatblacksarebiologicallyinferiortowhites.(68)Behaviorists,incontrast,saythatdifferencesinscoresareduetothefactthatblacksareoftendeprivedofmanyoftheeducationalandotherenvironmentaladvantagesthatwhitesMostpeoplethinkneitherofthesetheoriescanyetfullyexplainhuman1991年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Thefactisthattheenergycrisis,whichhassuddenlybeenofficiallyannounced,hasbeenwithusforalongtimenow,andwillbewithusforanevenlongertime.WhetherAraboilflowsfreelyornot,itiscleartoeveryonethatworldindustrycannotbeallowedtodependonsofragileabase.(71)Thesupplyofoilcanbeshutoffunexpectedlyatanytime,andinanycase,theoilwellswillallrundryinthirtyyearsorsoatthepresentrateofuse.(72)Newsourcesofenergymustbefound,andthiswilltaketime,butitisnotlikelytoresultinanysituationthatwilleverrestorethatsenseofcheapandplentifulenergywehavehadinthetimespast.Foranindefiniteperiodfromhereon,mankindisgoingtoadvancecautiously,andconsideritselfluckythatitcanadvanceatall.Tomakethesituationworse,thereisasyetnosignthatanyslowingoftheworld’spopulationisinsight.Althoughthebirth-ratehasdroppedinsomenations,includingtheUnitedStates,thepopulationoftheworldseemssuretopasssixbillionandperhapsevensevenbillionasthetwenty-firstcenturyopens.(73)Thefoodsupplywillnotincreasenearlyenoughtomatchthis,whichmeansthatweareheadingintoacrisisinthematterofproducingandmarketingfood.Takingallthisintoaccount,whatmightwereasonablyestimatesupermarketstobelikeintheyear2001?Tobeginwith,theworldfoodsupplyisgoingto esteadilytighteroverthenextthirtyyears--evenhereintheUnitedStates.By2001,thepopulationoftheUnitedStateswillbeatleasttwohundredfiftymillionandpossiblytwohundredseventymillion,andthenationwillfinditdifficulttoexpandfoodproductiontofilltheadditionalmouths.(74)Thiswillbeparticularlytruesinceenergypinchwillmakeitdifficulttocontinueagricultureinthehigh-energyAmericanfashionthatmakesitpossibletocombinefewfarmerswithhighyields.Itseemsalmostcertainthatby200ltheUnitedStateswillnolongerbeagreatfood-exportingnationandthat,ifnecessityforcesexports,itwillbeatthepriceofbelt-tighteningathome.Infact,asfooditemswilltendtodeclineinqualityanddecreaseinvariety,thereisverylikelytobeincreasinguseofflavouringadditives.(75)Untilsuchtimeasmankindhasthesensetoloweritspopulationtothepointwheretheplanetcanprovideacomfortablesupportforall,peoplewillhavetoacceptmore“unnatural1992年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Inligenceatbestisanassumptiveconstruct--themeaningofthewordhasneverbeenclear.(71)Thereismoreagreementonthekindsofbehaviorreferredtobythetermthanthereisonhowtointerpretorclassifythem.Butitisgenerallyagreedthata highinligenceisonewhocangraspideasreadily,makedistinctions,reasonlogically,andmakeuseofverbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Aninligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild’scapacityforlearning,particularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnotmeasurecharacter,socialadjustment,physicalendurance,manualskills,orartisticabilities.Itisnotsupposedto--itwasnotdesignedforsuchpurposes.(72)Tocriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughlycomparabletocriticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity.Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheinligenceofanysubjectisessentiallyacomparativeaffair.(73)Nowsincetheassessmentofin ligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthescalewithwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovidesa‘valid’or‘fair’comparison.Itisherethatsomeofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytestperformedinvolvesatleastthreefactors:theintentiontodoone’sbest,theknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodo,andthein lectualabilitytodoit.(74)Thefirsttwomustbeequalforallwhoarebeingcompared,ifanycomparisonintermsofinligenceistobemade.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptionscanbemadefairandreasonable,andthevalueofinligencetestinghasbeenprovedthoroughly.Itsvaluelies,ofcourse,initsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Nooneisintheleastinterestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecanconcludefromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisageattaskswhichwethinkrequire‘generalin (75)Onthewholesuchaconclusioncanbedrawnwithacertaindegreeofconfidence,butonlyifthechildcanbeassumedtohavehadthesameattitudetowardsthetestastheotherswithwhomheisbeingcompared,andonlyifhewasnotpunishedbylackofrelevantinformationwhichtheypossessed.1993年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分(71)Themethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehumanmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexactexplanation.Thereisnomoredifference,butthereisjustthesamekindofdifference,betweenthementaloperationsofamanofscienceandthoseofanordinary ,asthereisbetweentheoperationsandmethodsofabakerorofabutcherweighingouthisgoodsincommonscales,andtheoperationsofachemistinperformingadifficultandcomplexysisbymeansofhisbalanceandfinelygradedweights.(72)Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecase,andthebalanceintheother,differintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworking;butthatthelatterisamuchfinerapparatusandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.Youwillunderstandthisbetterperhaps,ifIgiveyousomefamiliarexamples73)Youhaveallhearditrepeatedthatmenofscienceworkbymeansofinduction(歸納法)anddeduction,thatbythehelpoftheseoperations,they,inasortofsense,managetoextractfromNaturecertainnaturallaws,andthatoutofthese,bysomespecialskilloftheirown,theybuilduptheirtheories.(74)Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbebynomeanscomparedwiththeseprocesses,andthattheyhavetobeacquiredbyasortofspecialtraining.Tohearalltheselargewords,youwouldthinkthatthemindofamanofsciencemustbeconstituteddifferentlyfromthatofhisfellowmen;butifyouwillnotbefrightenedbyterms,youwilldiscoverthatyouarequitewrong,andthatalltheseterribleapparatusarebeingusedbyyourselveseverydayandeveryhourofyourThereisawell-knownincidentinoneofMotiere’splays,wheretheauthormakestheheroexpressunboundeddelightonbeingtoldthathehadbeentalkingprose(散文)duringthewholeofhislifeInthesamewayItrustthatyouwilltakecomfort,andbedelightedwithyourselves,onthediscoverythatyouhavebeenactingontheprinciplesofinductiveanddeductivephilosophyduringthesameperiod75)Probablythereisnotoneherewhohasnotinthecourseofthedayhadoccasiontosetinmotionacomplextrainofreasoning,oftheverysamekindthoughdifferingindegree,asthatwhichascientificmangoesthroughintracingthecausesofnaturalphenomena.1994年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,technologyisanoverlookedforceinexpandingthehorizonsofscientificknowledge.(71)Sciencemovesforward,theysay,notsomuchthroughtheinsightsofgreatmenofgeniusasbecauseofmoreordinarythingslikeimprovedtechniquesandtools.(72)“Inshort,”aleaderofthenewschoolcontends,“thescientificrevolution,aswecallit,waslargelytheimprovementandinventionanduseofaseriesofinstrumentsthatexpandedthereachofscienceininnumerabledirections.”(73)Overtheyears,toolsandtechnologythemselvesasasourceoffundamentalinnovationhavelargelybeenignoredbyhistoriansandphilosophersofscience.ThemodernschoolthathailstechnologyarguesthatsuchmastersasGalileo,Newton,Maxwell,Einstein,andinventorssuchasEdisonattachedgreatimportanceto,andderivedgreatbenefitfrom,craftinformationandtechnologicaldevicesofdifferentkindsthatwereusableinscientificThecenterpieceoftheargumentofatechnology-yes,genius-noadvocatewasanysisofGalileo’sroleatthestartofthescientificrevolution.ThewisdomofthedaywasderivedfromPtolemy,anastronomerofthesecondcentury,whoseelaboratesystemoftheskyputEarthatthecenterofallheavenlymotions.(74)Galileo’sgreatestglorywasthatin1609hewasthefirst toturnthenewlyinventedescopeontheheavenstoprovethattheplanetsrevolvearoundthesunratherthanaroundtheEarth.Buttherealheroofthestory,accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,wasthelongevolutionintheimprovementofmachineryformakingeyeglasses.theernmentshouldincreasethefinancingofpurescienceattheexpenseoftechnologyorviceversaoftendependsontheissueofwhichisseenasthedrivingforce.1995年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicaltestthatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitary havebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andevenincongress.71)Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedor petentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillbevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionsoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgrades,researchproductivity,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.72)Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalways pleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjecttoStandardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhata learned,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindof heis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesand ingsasotherkindsofinformation.73)Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.74)Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Properlyused,theyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.75)Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonotlhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorable1996年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Thedifferencesinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.71)Someofthesecausesarecompleyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Some,however,arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionoftheformscientifictheoryoughttotake,by sinauthority,acttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable;butitisafrighteningtrend.72)ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthataernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredicted,however,thatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.73)ThisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedtoimmediatebutofpossibleconsequenceintheThiskindofsupport,likeallernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butdecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting“good”asopposedto“bad”science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsciencetendsto econfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.74)However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld’smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.75)Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.1997年入學(xué)統(tǒng)一考試英語試題（翻譯部分Doanimalshaverights?Thisishowthequestionisusuallyput.Itsoundslikeauseful,ground-clearingwaytostart.71)Actually,itisn’t,becauseitassumesthatthereisanagreedaccountofhumanrights,whichissomethingtheworlddoesnothave.Ononeviewofrights,tobesure,itnecessarilyfollowsthatanimalsh