陜西省普通高級(jí)中學(xué)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化學(xué)校評(píng)估 50

PsychologicalAttributes:Ability,Interests,&Personality

AttributesandDecisionMaking

Certainpsychologicalattributeshavebeenshowntobemorerelevantfordecisionmakingregardingindividuals--butthisdependsonthenatureofthedecision.

Whenusingpsychologicalattributesinmakingdecisions,itisabsolutelyvitaltomatchtheappropriateattributewiththepredictedbehavior.Forexample,measuresofgeneralintelligencewouldn’tbeofmuchuseindetermininganappropriatepsychologicaltreatment.AttributesandDecisionMaking(cont.)

Allpsychologicalattributesofinterestareassumedtobenormallydistributed.Therefore,allpsychologicalattributesshouldrevealindividualdifferences(usedforcomparisons).Thisassumptionofnormaldistributionisnecessaryinordertoanalyzedatawithparametricstatistics.

FluidAttributes

Fluidattributes

suchasmoodcanchangeonanhourtohourbasis.Thisinstabilityindicatesthatmoodsarenotgreatpredictorsoffuturebehaviorwithinaparticularsituation.AttitudesandOpinionsarealsorelativelyfluidfrom18to25.PersonalValuescanalsochangeovertime.Thefluidityoftheaboveattributesmakesthemlessthanoptimalpredictorsofimportantbehaviors

StableAttributesStableattributesareessentialinmakinglongtermpredictions.e.g.,AdultIntelligenceIntelligence,althoughrelativelyfluidatanearlyage,isrelativelystableacrossthemajorityofadultyears.Researchersbelievethatanindividual’spersonalityisbasicallysetbyage5.BroadclassesofInterestarealsorelativelystable.

Duetotherelativestabilityofmeasuresofability,interest,andpersonality,thesethreeareasaretheprimaryfocusofpeopleusingpsychologicalteststopredictfuturebehavior.

WhatisIntelligence?

Intelligenceisaconstruct(i.e,concreteobservationalentities),notaconcreteobject.

Researchersdisagreeonwhatthedefinitionofintelligenceshouldbe.Althoughwemaynotbeabletodefinitivelyanswerwhatintelligenceis,wecanlistbehaviorswhichwefeelrepresentsomelevelofintelligence. ForExample:-Crossingabusystreetwithoutlookingbothways.-BeingabletosolveaRubikscube-Beingabletogetasuperlowairfareon

Additionally,noneofthesebehaviorsalonecanbesaidtorepresenttheentirerangeofintelligentbehavior.

WhatisIntelligence(cont.)?Scientistsbelievethatintelligenceisavalidandusefulconstructfortworeasons:First,awidevarietyofmentalprocessingtasksshowsystematicindividualvariation.Anindividualwhoperformswellononemeasureofcognitiveability,willlikelyperformwellonothermeasuresofmentalprocessing.Second,thisconstructisrelatedtosuccessinawidevarietyoflifetasks:schoolperformance,trainingprograms,andworkbehaviors.So,sinceintelligencedoesexhibitconsistentindividualdifferencesandcanbeusedtopredictperformanceinanumberofimportantareas.

WhatisIntelligence(cont.)?Althoughexpertsdifferonanexactdefinitionofintelligencemostagreethatintelligentbehaviorhasatleasttwocomponents:1.Theabilitytolearnfromexperience.2.Theabilitytoadapttothesurroundingenvironment.

DefinitionofIntelligence(1)Theabilitytolearnorunderstandortodealwithnewortryingsituations:theskilleduseofreason(2):theabilitytoapplyknowledgetomanipulateone'senvironmentortothinkabstractlyasmeasuredbyobjectivecriteria(Webster's)Thecognitiveabilitiesofanindividualtolearnfromexperience,toreasonwell,andtocopeeffectivelywiththedemandsofdailyliving.

HistoryofIntelligence

-Relativelymodernphenomenon-notuntil1890

-Before1900,psychologistswerenotabledistinguishintelligencefromotherhumancharacteristics

-EarlydevelopmentoftheoriesofintelligenceandtestconstructionstartedinEngland&France.

-Galton&Cattelllookedatindividualdifferences-i.e.,reactiontime,measuresofstrength

-Classificationofmentallyretarded-treatmentwasinhumane.

HistoryofIntelligence(cont.)

-BinetwascommissionedbyMinistryofPublicInstructiontoconstructatestthatdifferentiateschildrenwithlearningdisabilitiesfromnon-learningdisabledchildren.

-Binet-Simonscalewascreatedandcontained30itemsarrangedinorderofdifficulty.

-Mostitemscalledfortheuseoflanguage,reasoning,orcomprehension.

-Binet-SimonscalewasrevisedbyTerman(1916)andrenamedStanford-BinetIntelligenceTest-thetermIQisborn.

HistoryofIntelligence(cont.)SirFrancisGalton

CharlesSpearman

LouisThurstone

Generalfactor(g)J.P.GuilfordHowardGardner

TheBiologicalBasisofIntelligence

Galton(1822-1911)-viewofintelligenceisthatitisasinglegeneralfactorthatisthebasis.

GfactorAgreaterabilitytoformneuralconnectionswhichleadstoabettergeneralintellectualperformance(i.e.ifwearegenerallyintelligent,wearemorelikelytodevelopstrongmechanical,musical,artistic,andotherkindsofability)BraincanprocessinformationmorequicklyBetterabletolearnfromexperience

TwoFactorTheoryofIntelligence

Spearmanobservedthatanindividual’sscoresonanytwocognitivelydemandingtaskswerepositivelycorrelated.Thisledhimtobelievethatageneralintellectualfactor(g),wasresponsibleforthiscorrelation.

BasicallyHisIdeaWas:Differenttypesofproblemsrequiredifferenttypesofabilities.Forexample,theabilitiesneededtofixacarareatleastsomewhatdifferentfromtheabilitiesneededtodoageometricproofinmathclass.But,alltypesofproblemsrequireanabilitytoseerelationshipsbetweenthingsandtomanipulatethoserelationships.Alltypesofproblemsrequireg.

Soperformanceonalltasksaredeterminedbyageneralfactor(g)whichdeterminestheabilitytoseerelationshipsandmanipulatethoserelationshipsandmorespecificfactors(s)FluidandCrystallizedIntelligence

CrystallizedIntelligence-anindividualsacquiredsetofknowledgeandskills.Incognitivepsychology,crystallizedintelligenceisfurtherdividedinto:DeclarativeKnowledge:FactbasedinformationProceduralKnowledge:Howtodothings.FluidandCrystallizedintelligencemeasuresarecorrelated,butdistinct

Cattell(1963)agreedwithSpearmanbutarguedthatgwasmadeupoftwotypesofgeneralintelligence:

FluidIntelligence-theabilitytoseerelationships,i.e.analogiesandnumberanddigitseriescompletion.Forexample:24816___

GroupingFactorsofIntelligence

Thurstonedidn’tbelievethatthegfactorcouldexplainallvariationacrosscognitivetests.Thurstonetheorizedthattherewerecommongroupfactorspresentindifferentclassesoftests.Forexample,areadingcomprehensiontestandavocabularytestshowgreatercorrelationthandoareadingcomprehensiontestandameasureofnumericalability.Thesegroupfactorsareindependentofoneanother,butstillrelatedtog.

GroupingFactorsofIntelligence(cont.)

Thurstonehypothesizedsevenprimarymentalabilities,whichtogethercombinedtocreateg:1.VerbalComprehension-vocabulary,reading,verbalanalogies2.WordFluency---anagrams,rhymingtests3.Number--mathematicaloperations4.Space-spatialvisualizationsandmentaltransformation.5.AssociativeMemory--rotememory6.PerceptualSpeed--quicknessinnoticingsimilaritiesanddifferences7.Reasoning-skillininductive,deductive,andmathproblemsGardner’sTheoryofMultipleIntelligence7IndependentTypesofIntelligenceLinguistic(verbal)Logical-mathematicalMusicalSpatial(artistic)Kinesthetic(athletic)Interpersonal(socialskills)Intrapersonal(personaladjustment)HowardGardinerarguesthattherearereallymanydifferentandindependenttypesofintelligences.Hesuggeststhatpeoplemaybeverygoodatsomeoftheseskills,whilenotatothers.Gardner’sSevenIntelligencesGardner’sSevenIntelligencesMeasuresofIntelligence

-Stanford-BinetIntelligenceScale

-TheWechslerScalesGroupTestsArmyAlpha:consistedof8subtestsmeasuringverbal,numerical,&reasoningabilities.ArmyBeta:equivalentnon-verbaltestandusedpictorials&nonverbalinstructionIndividualIntelligenceTests

Stanford-BinetMeasureofIntelligence

-

Studentswhowerenotsucceedinginschoolwerebeingplacedinschoolsforthementallyretarded.Butsomeofthesestudentswerenotmentallyretardedatall,butwerenotsucceedinginschoolforotherreasons.So

-Binet'sjobwastocomeupwithatestthatwoulddistinguishbetweenthosetwogroupsofstudents.

-Binet'stestwaslateradaptedintheUnitedStatesbyLewisTermanatStanfordUniversity.HencethetestisnowknownastheStanford/BinetTest.Itincludesquestionstestingvocabularyknowledge,comprehension,recognitionofabsurdities,theabilitytoreproducevisualpatternsetc.

TheWechslerScales

ThemostcommoncurrentintelligencetestistheWeschlerIntelligencetest.TherearedifferentWeschlertestsfordifferentagegroups.

WechslerIntelligenceScaleforChildren(WISC)WechslerAdultIntelligenceScale(WAIS) TheWeschlertestsgivesthreescores:

1.VerbalScore

2.PerformanceScore

3.CombinedScore

ConstructionofIntelligenceTestsMentalAge(MA)ChronologicalAge(CA)IntelligenceQuotient(IQ)IQ=MA/CAx100RatioIQDeviationIQNormaldistributionBecauseMentalAgedoesn’ttypicallygrowafter25,thismethodunderestimatesmostadultIQs.

ConstructionofIntelligenceTests

-Onmoderntests,adeviationIQisobtained.

-Bycomparingyouractualscoreonanintelligencetesttotheaveragescoreonthattest,wedeterminewhetheryouareaboveaverage,belowaverage,oraverageinintelligence.

-Wetaketherawdatafromthetest(yourscore,theaverage,andthestandarddeviation)andwestatisticallytransformthescoreintoadistributionwherethemeanis100andthestandarddeviationis15.

CharacteristicsofGoodIntelligentTests

2.Norms3.Objectivity

4.Reliability

5.Validity

1.StandardizationImportanceofIntelligenceScores

PredictstosomeextenthowwellwewilldoinlifePredictabilityofIntelligenceScores

Manyoccupationsareavailableonlytopersonswithcollegeorgraduatedegrees.Ittakeslesstimetotrainpersonswithhigherintelligencetoahighlevelofjobknowledgeandskill.Personswithhigherintelligencetendtoperformbetterincomplexjobs.Race-EthnicDifferencesDifferencesinintelligenceandachievement:GapisnarrowingWhiteAmericansscore15pointsthanAfricanAmericansAsianAmericansscorehigherthanWhiteAmericansDefinitionofPersonalityPersonalityrefersto“factors”insidepeoplethatexplaintheirbehavior(MacKinnon,1944).Thesumtotaloftypicalwaysofacting,thinking,andfeelingthatmakesapersonunique.HistoryofPersonalityAncientGreekscharacterizedhumancharacterbyexcessiveinfluenceofbodilyfluids:blood,yellow&blackbile,andphlegm.Earlypsychologicalexaminationslookedatpsychopathology.Bythe1930’sresearchersstartedlookingatthestructureofeverydaybehaviour.Cameupwithuniversaltraits.TraitsRelativelyenduringpatternsofbehavior(thinking,acting,andfeeling)thatarerelativelyconsistentacrosssituations.TraitExamples-introvertextrovertassertivenesspersistence(Mayer)narcissismresilienceTheTraitTheoryOpenness

-referstoopen-mindedthinkingandinterestConscientiousness

-referstohoworganizedandpersistentweareinpursuingourgoals.Extroversion-referstothepreferencefor,andbeheviourinsocialsituations

Agreeableness

-referstohowwellwetendtointeractwith

othersNeuroticism

-referstothetendencytoexperiencenegativethoughtsandfeelings.AdditionstotheBigFive?–Honesty,Respect,Integrity,.

Manyagreethatfivebasictraitsprovideacompletedescriptionofourpersonalities.Theyare:

HowPersonalityisAssessed

Frank(1939)statedthat“aninitialdifficultyinthestudyofpersonalityisthethelackofanyclearcutconceptionofwhatistobestudied.

RorschachInkblotTest

ThematicApperceptionTest(TAT)ProjectiveTests

ObjectiveTests

MinnesotaMultiphasicPersonalityInventory(MMPI)16PFMyersBriggsInventory

WhatAreProjectiveTests?

Aprojectivetestusesambiguous stimulidesignedtorevealthecontentsoftheclient’sunconsciousmind.

WhatAreObjectiveTests?Inanobjectivetest,noattemptismadetosubjectivelyunderstandwhatthepersonmeansbyanswertoeachquestion.WhatMakeaGoodPersonalityMeasureInterpretability-Broadvs.Narrow(morereliable)Stability-Aretestsvalid? -Aretheyreliable? -Aretheystandardized?

InterestTestingStrong(1943)definedinterestas“aresponsetoliking”Thingsthatwelikeelicitpositivefeelings,thingsinwhichwehavelittleinterestelicitlittleemotions,andthingswehavedisinterestedinelicitsapathyorfeelingsofaversionInterestsaredifferentthatabilities-justbecauseyoulikesomethingdoesn’tmeanyoucandoitwell.Interestsarerelatedtosatisfaction,ratherthanperformance.

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