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機(jī)械專業(yè)中英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯中文4935字ModernDesignandManufacturing一、TheComputerandManufacturingThecomputerisbringingmanufacturingintotheInformationAge.Thisnewtool,longafamiliaroneinbusinessandmanagementoperations,ismovingintothefactory,anditsadventischangingmanufacturingascertainlyasthesteamenginechangedit100yearsago.Thebasicmetalworkingprocessesarenotlikelytochangefundamentally,buttheirorganizationandcontroldefinitelywillInonerespect,manufacturingcouldbesaidtobecomingfullcircle.Thefistmanufacturingwasacottageindustry:thedesignerwasalsothemanufacturer,conceivingandfabricatingproductsoneatatime.Eventually,theconceptoftheinterchangeabilityofpartswasdeveloped,productionwasseparatedintospecializedfunctions,andidenticalpartswereproducedthousandsatatime.Today,althoughthedesignerandmanufacturermaynotbecomeoneagain,thefunctionsarebeingdrawncloseinthemovementtowardanintegratedmanufacturingsystem.Itisperhapsironicthat,atatimewhenthemarketdemandsahighdegreeofproductdiversification,thenecessityforincreasingproductivityandreducingcoatsisdrivingmanufacturingtowardinegrationintoacoherentsystem,acontinuousprocessinwhichpartsdonotspentasmuchas95%ofproductiontimebeingmovedaroundorwaitingtobeworkedon.Thecomputeristhekeytoeachofthesetwinrequirements.Itistheonlytoolthatcanprovidethequickreflexes,theflexibilityandseed,tomeetadiversifiedmarket.Anditistheonlytoolthatenablesthedetailedanalysisandtheaccessibilityofaccuratedatanecessaryfortheintegrationofthemanufacturingsystem.Itmaywellbethat,inthefuture,thecomputermaybeessentialtoacompany’ssurvial.Manyoftoday’sbusinesseswillfadeawaytobereplacedbymore-productivecombinations.Suchmore-productivecombinationsaresuperquality,superproductivityplants.Thegoalistodesignandoperateaplantthatwouldproduce100%satisfactorypartswichgoodproductivity.Asophisticated,competitiveworldisrequiringthatmanufacturingbegintosettleformore,tobecomeitselfsophisticated.Tomeetcompetition,forexample,acompanywillhavetomeetthesomewhatconflictingdemandsforgreaterproductdiversification,higherquality,improvedproductivity,higherquality,improvedproductivityandprices.Thecompanythatseekstomeetthesedemandswillneedasophisticatedtool,onethatwillallowittorespondquicklytocustomerneedswhilegettingthemostoutofitsmanufacturingresources.Thecomputeristhattool.Becominga“superquality,superproductivity”plantrequirestheintegrationofanextremelycomplexsystem.Thiscanbeaccomplishedonlywhenallextremelycomplexsystem.Thiscanbeaccomplishedonlywhenallelementsofmanufacturing-design,fabricationandassembly,qualityassurance,management,materialshanding-arecomputerintegrated.Inproductdesign,forexample,interactivecomputer-aided-design(CAD)systemsallowthedrawingandanalysistaskstobeperformedinafractionofthetimeallowthedrawingandanalysistaskstobeperformedinafrationofthetimepreviouslyrequiredandgreateraccuracy.Andprogramsforprototypetestingtestingandevaluationfurtherspeedthedesignprocess.Inmanufacturingplanning,computer-aidedprocessplanningpermitstheselection,fromthousandsofpossiblesequencesandschedules,oftheoptimumprocess.Ontheshopfloor,distributedintlligenceintheformofmicroprocessorscontrols,runsautomatedloadingandunloadingequipment,andcollectsdataoncurrentshopconditions.Butsuchisolatedrevolutionsarenotenough.Whatisnendedisatotallyautomatedsystem,linkedbycommonsoftwarefromfrontdoortoback.Essentially,computerintegrationprovideswidelyandinstantaneouslyavailable,accurateinformation,improvingcommunicationbetweendepartments,permittingtightercontrol,andgenerallyenhancingtheoverallqualityandefficiencyoftheentiresystem.Improvedcommunicationcanmean,forexample,designsthataremoreproducible.TheNCprogrammerandthetooldesignerhaveachangtoinfluencetheproductdesigner,andviceversa.Engineeringchanges,canbereduced,andthosethatarerequiredcanbehandledmoreefficiently.Notonlydosethecomputerpermitthemtobespecicifiedmorequickly,butitalsoalerssubsequentusersofthedatatothefactthatachangehasbeenmade.Theinstantaneousupdatingofproduction-controldatapermitsbetterplanningandmore-effectivescheduling.Expensiveequipment,therefore,isusedmoreproductively,andpartsmovemoreefficientlythroughproduction,reducingwork-in-processcoats.Productquality,too,canbeimproved.Notonlyaremore-accuratedesignsproduced,forexample,buttheuseofdesigndatabythequality-assurancedepartmenthelpseliminateerrorsduetomisunderstandings.Peopleareenabledtodotheirjobsbetter.Byeliminatingtediouscalculationsandpaperwork—nottomentiontimewastedsearchingforinformation—thecomputernotonlyallowsworkerstobemoreproductivebutalsofreesthemtodowhatonlyhumanbeingcando:thinkcreatively.Computerintegrationmayalsolurenewpeopleintomanufacturing.Peopleareattractedbecausetheywanttoworkinamodern,technologicallysophisticatedenviroment.Inmanufacturingengineering,CAD/CAMdecreasestool-design,NC-programming,andplanningtimeswhilespeedingtheresponserate,whichwilleventuallypermitin-housstafftoperformworkthatiscurrentlybeingcontractedout.二、NumericalControlOneofthemostfundamentalconceptsintheareaofadvancedmannufacturingtechnologiesisnumericalcontrol(NC).PriortotheadventofNC,allmachinetoolsweremanuallyoperatedandcontrolled.Amongthemanylimitationsassociatedwithmanualcontrolmachinetolls.Perhapsnoneismoreprominentthanthelimitationofoperatorskills.Withmanualcontrol,thequalityofthepeoductisdirectlyrelatedtoandlimitedtotheskillsoftheoperator.Numericalcontrolrepresentsthefirstmajorstepawayfromhumancontrolofmachinetools.Numericalcontrolmeansthecontrolofmachinetoolsandothermanufacturingsystemsthroughtheuseofprerecorded,writtensymbolicinstrutions.Ratherthanoperatingamachinetool,anNCtechnicianwritesaprogramthatissuesoperatingamachinetool,anNCtechnicianweitesaprogramthatissuesoperationalinstructionstothemachinetool.Numericalcontrolwasdevelopedtoovercomethelimitationofhumanoperators,andithasdoneso.Numericalcontrolmachinesaremoreaccuratethanmanuallyoperatedmachines,theycanproducepartsmoreuniformly,theyarefastre,andthelong-runtoolingcostsarelower.ThedevelopmentofNCledtothedevelopmentofseveralotherinnovationsinmanufacturingtechnology:1.Electricaldischargemachining.2.Lasercutting.3.Electronbeamwelding.Numericalcontrolhasalsomademachinetoolsmoreversatilethantheirmanuallyoperatedpredecessors.AnNCmachinetoolcanautomaticallyproduceawidevarietyofparts,eachinvolvinganassortmentofwidelyvariedandcomplexmachiningprocesses.Numericalcontrolhasallowedmanufacturerstoundertaketheproductionofproductsthatwouldnothavebeenfeasibleformaneconomicperspectiveusingmanuallycontrolledmachinetoolsandprocesses.Likesomanyadvancedtechnologies,NCwasborninthelaboratoriesoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology.TheconceptofNCwasdevelopedintheearly1950swithfundingprovidedbytheU.S.AirForce.TheAPT(AutomaticallyProgrammedTools)languagewasdesignedattheServomechanismlaboratoryofMITin1956.ThisisaspecialprogramminglanguageforNCthatusesstatementssimilartoEnglishlanguagetodefinethepartgeometry,describethecuttingtoolconfiguration,andspecifythenecessarymotions.ThedevelopmentoftheAPTlanguagewasamajorstepforwardinthefurtherdevelopmentofNCtechnology.TheoriginalNCsystemswerevastlydifferentformthoseusedtoday.Themachineshadhardwiredlogiccircuits.Theinstructionalprogramswerewrittenonpunchedpaper,whichwaslatertobereplacedbymagneticplastictape.Atapereaderwasusedtointerprettheinstructionswrittenonthetapeforthemachine.Together,allofthisrepresentedagiantstepforwardinthecontrolofmachinetools.However,therewereanumberofproblemswithNCatthispointinitsdevelopment.Amajorproblemwasthefragilityofthepunchedpapertapemedium.Itwascommonforthepapertapecontainingtheprogrammedinstructionstobreakortearduringamachiningprocess.Thisproblemwasexacerbatedbythefactthateachsuccessivetimeapartwasproducedonamachinetool,thepapertapecarryingtheprogrammedinstuctionshadtobererunthroughthereader.Ifitwasnecessarytoproduce100copiesofagivenpart,itwasalsonecessarytorunthepapertapethroughthereader100separatetimes.Fragilepapertapessimplycouldnotwithstandtherigorsofashopfloorenvironmentandthiskindofrepeateduse.Thisledtothedevelopmentofaspecialmagneticplastictape.Whereasthepapertapecarriedtheprogtammedinstructionsasaseriesofholespunchedinthetape,theplastictapecarriedtheinstructionsasaseriesofmagneticdots.Theplastictapewasmuchstrongerthanthepapertape,whichsolvedtheproblemoffrequenttearingandbreakage.However,itstilllefttwootherproblems.Themostimportantofthesewasthatitwasdifficultorimpossibletochangetheinstructionsenteredonthetape.Tomakeeventhemostminoradjustmentsinaprogramofinstuctions,itwasnecessarytointerruptmachiningoperationsandmakeanewtape.Itwasalsostillnecessarytorunthetapethoughthereaderasmanytimesastherewerepartstobeproduced.Fortunately,computertechnologybecamearealityandsoonsolvedtheproblemsofNCasociatedwithpunchedpaperandplastictape.Thedevslopmentofaconceptknownasdirectnumericalcontrol(DNC)solvedthepaperandplastictapeproblemsassociatedwithnumericalcontrolbysimplyeliminatingtapeasthemediumforcarryingtheprogrammedinstructions.Indirectnumericalcontrol,machinetoolsaretied,viaadatatransmissionlink,toahostcomputer.Programsforoperatingthemachinetoolsarestoredinthehostcomputerandfedtothemachinetoolasneededviathedatatransmissionlinkage.Directnumericalcontrolrepresentedamajorstepforwardoverpunchedtapeandplastictape.However,itissubjecttothesamelimitationsasalltechnologiesthatdependonahostcomputer.Whenthehoetcomputergoesdown,themachinetoolsalsoexperiencedowntime.Thisproblemledtothedevelopmentofcomputernumericalcontrol.Thedevelopmentofthemicroprocessorallowedforthedevelopmentofprogrammablelogiccontrollers(PLCs)andmicrocomputers.Thesetwotechnologiesallowedforthedevelopmentofcomputerofcomputernumericalcontrol(CNC).WhitCNC,eachmachinetoolhasaPLCoramicrocomputerthatservesthesamepurpose.Thisallowsprogramstobeinputandstordateachindividualmachinetool.Italsoallowsprogramstobedevslopedoff-lineanddownloadedattheindividualmachinetool.CNCsolvedtheprobiemsassociatedwithdowntimeofthehostcomputer,butitintroducedanotherproblemknownasdatamanagement.Thesameprogrammightbeloadedontendifferentmicrocomputerswithnocommunicationamongthem.Thisproblemisintheprocessofbeingsolvedbylocalareanetworksthatconnectmicrocomputersforbetterdatamanagement.三、ProgrammersSkillfulpart-programmersareavitalrequirementforeffectiveutilizationofNCmachinetools.Upontheirefficiencyofthosemachinesandthefinancialpaybackofthesignificantinvestmentinthemachinesthemselves,thepiant’sNC-supportfacilities,andtheoverheadcostsinvolved.SkillfulNCpart-programmersarescarce.Thisreflectsnotonlythegeneralshortageofexperiencedpeopleinthemeyalworkingindustriesbutalsotheincreasingdemandforprogrammersasindustryturnsmoretotheuseofnumericallycontrolledmachinestoincreasethecapability,versaility,andproductivityofmanufacturing.Onanindustry-widebasis,theobviousansweristocreatenewprogrammersbytrainingthem-andthereareanumberofsourcesforsuchtraining.Butfirst,whatqualificationsshouldprogrammershave,andwhatmustprogrammingtraineeslearn?AccordingtotheNationalMachineToolBuilder’sAssnbooklet“SelectinganAppropriateNCprogrammingMethod,”theprincipalqualificationsformanualprogrammersareasfollows:ManufacuringExperienceProgrammersmusthaveathoroughunderstadingofthecapabilitiesoftheNCmachinesbeingprogrammed,aswellasanunderstandingofthebasiccapabilitiesoftheothermachinesintheshop.Theymusthaveanextensiveknowledgeof,andsensitivityto,metalcuttingprinciplesandpracticesandpractices,cuttingcapabilitiesofthetools,andworkholdingfixturesandtechniques.Programmersproperlytrainedinthesemanufacturing-engineeringtechniquescansignificantlyreduceproductioncosts.SpatialVisualizationProgrammersmustbeabletovisualizepartsintheredimensions,thecuttingmotionsofthemachine,andpotentialinterferencesbetweenthecuttingtool,workpiece,fixture,orthemachineitself.MathematicsAworkingknowledgeofarithmetic,algebraic,trigonometric,andgeometricoperationsisextremelyimportant.Aknowledgeofhighermathematics,suchasadvancedalgebra,calculus,etc,isnotnormallyrequired.AttentiontoDetailsItisessentialthatprogrammersbeacutelyobservantandmeticulouslyaccurateindividuals.Programmerserrorsdiscoveredduringmachinesetupcanbeveryexpensiveandtime-consumingtocorrect.“Manualprogrammer,”thebookletnotselsewhere,“requirestheprogrammertohavemore-detailedknowledgeofthemachineandcontril,machingpractices,andmethodsofcomputionthandosecomputer-aidedprogramming.Computer-aidedprogramming,ontheotherhand,requiresaknowledgeofthecomputerprogramminglanguageandthecomputersysteminordertoprocessthatlanguage.Ingeneral,manualprogrammerismoretediousanddemandingbecauseofthedetailinvolved.Inacomputer–aidedprogrammingsystem,thisdetailknowledgeisembodiedinthecomputersystem(processor,postprocessor,etc).”ExpertsintheNCandtrainingfieldstypicallyagreeonthesequalificationsandrequirements-addingsuchsubsidiarydetailsasaknowledgeofblueprintreading,machinabilityofdifferentmetals,useofshopmeasuringinstruments,tolerancingmethods,andpractices.Whereshouldyoulookforcandidates?Firstofall,inyourownplant-outontheshopfloor.EdwardF.Schloss,aCincinnatiMilacronsalesvicepresident,putsitthisway:“We’vehadexcellentsuccesswithgoodlatheoperatorsandgoodboring-millhands.Theydon’tknowit,butthey’vebeenprogrammingmostoftheirworkinglives,andtheyknowbasicshopmathandtrigonometry.Youcanteachthemprogrammingratherhandily.Conversely,though,it’sfairlyhardtomakeNCpart-programmersoutofhigh-poweredmathematicians.Thepathprogrammingiseasy.Butwhattodowithit-thefeeds,speeds,etc.–thatmaytakeevenmore-extensivetraining.”Withmore-powerfulcomputer-assistprogramming,theneedformetalcuttingknowledgeonthepartofprogrammersisreduced.Throughtheuseofthissoftware,CincinnatiMilacronhasbeenverysuccessfulinhiringnemcollegegraduates,includeingsomewithnontechnicaldegrees,andtrainingthemtobeNCpart-programming.Thetraineesaregivenhands-onmachine-toolexperienceintheplantbeforetheyareadvancedtoprogramming.AllsuppliersofNCmachinetools,ofcourse,providesomesortoftrainingintheprorammingoftheirproducts,andmostofferformalizedtrainingprograms,Milacron’ssalesdepartment,forexample,has20fulltimecustomer-traininginstructors.Thecompany’sprerequisitesforprogrammertrainingincludethefollowing:“Participantsmusthaveknowledgeofgeneralmachine-shopsafetyproceduresandbeabletoreaddetaildrawings,sectionalviews,andNCmanuscripts.”“Knowledgeofplanegeometry,right-angletrigonometry,andfundamentalsoftolerancingisrequired.”“KnowledgeofNCmanualpart-programming,NCmachine-toolsetupandoperatingprocedures,partprocessing,metalcuttingtechnology,tooling,andfixturingisalsoneeded.”SendingpeoplewiththatkindofbackgroundtoschoolwillensurethatusersoftheNCmachinewillgetthemaximumbenefitfortheirtrainingdollarthecostofaweekofthetrinee’stime,travel,andlivingexpenses,eventhoughthetrainingfeeiswaivedwiththebasicpurchaseofthemachinetool.現(xiàn)代設(shè)計(jì)與制造一、計(jì)算機(jī)與制造業(yè):計(jì)算機(jī)正在將制造業(yè)帶入信息時(shí)代。計(jì)算機(jī)長(zhǎng)期以來在商業(yè)和管理方面得到了廣泛的應(yīng)用,它正在作為一種新的工具進(jìn)入到工廠中,而且它如同蒸汽機(jī)在100年前使制造業(yè)發(fā)生改變那樣,正在使制造業(yè)發(fā)生著變革。盡管基本的金屬切削過程不太可能發(fā)生根本的改變,但是他們的組織形式和控制方式將發(fā)生改變。從某一方面可以說,制造業(yè)正在完成一個(gè)循環(huán)。最初的制造業(yè)是家庭手工業(yè):設(shè)計(jì)者本身也是制造者,產(chǎn)品的構(gòu)思與加工由同一人完成。后來,形成了零件的互換性這個(gè)概念,生產(chǎn)被依照專業(yè)功能分割開來,可以成批的生產(chǎn)數(shù)以千計(jì)的相同的零件。今天,盡管設(shè)計(jì)者與制造者不可能再是同一個(gè)人,但在向集成制造系統(tǒng)前進(jìn)的途中,這兩種功能已經(jīng)越來越靠近了??赡芫哂兄S刺意味的是,在市場(chǎng)需求高度多樣化的產(chǎn)品的時(shí)候,提高生產(chǎn)率和降低成本的必要性促使著制造業(yè)朝著集成為單調(diào)關(guān)聯(lián)系統(tǒng)方向變化。這是一個(gè)連續(xù)的過程,在其中零件不需要花費(fèi)多達(dá)95%的生產(chǎn)時(shí)間用在運(yùn)輸和等待加工上。計(jì)算機(jī)是滿足這兩項(xiàng)要求中任何一項(xiàng)的關(guān)鍵。它是能夠提供快速反應(yīng)能力、柔性和滿足多樣化市場(chǎng)的唯一工具。而且,它是實(shí)現(xiàn)制造系統(tǒng)集成所需要的、能夠進(jìn)行詳細(xì)分析和利用精確數(shù)據(jù)的唯一工具。在將來計(jì)算機(jī)可能會(huì)是一個(gè)企業(yè)生存的基本條件,許多現(xiàn)今的企業(yè)將會(huì)被生產(chǎn)能力更高的企業(yè)組合所取代。這些生產(chǎn)能力更高的企業(yè)組合是一些具有非常高的質(zhì)量、非常高的生產(chǎn)率的工廠。目標(biāo)是設(shè)計(jì)和運(yùn)行一個(gè)能夠以高生產(chǎn)率的生產(chǎn)方式100%合格產(chǎn)品的工廠。一個(gè)采用先進(jìn)的、競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的世界正在促使制造業(yè)開始做更高的工作,使其本身采用先進(jìn)的技術(shù)。為了適應(yīng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng),一個(gè)公司會(huì)滿足一些在某種程度上相互矛盾的要求,諸如產(chǎn)品多樣化、提高質(zhì)量、增加生產(chǎn)率、降低價(jià)格。在努力這些要求的過程中,公司需要一個(gè)采用先進(jìn)技術(shù)的工具,一個(gè)能夠?qū)︻櫩偷男枨笞鞒隹焖俜磻?yīng),而且從制造資源中獲得最大收益的工具。計(jì)算機(jī)就是這個(gè)工具。成為一個(gè)具有“非常高的質(zhì)量、非常高的生產(chǎn)率”的工廠,需要對(duì)一個(gè)非常復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)進(jìn)行集成。這只有通過采用計(jì)算機(jī)對(duì)機(jī)械制造的所有組成部分—設(shè)計(jì)、加工、裝配、質(zhì)量保證、管理和材料裝卸及輸送進(jìn)行集成才能完成。例如,在產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)期間,交互式的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助設(shè)計(jì)系統(tǒng)使得完成繪圖和分析工作所需要的時(shí)間比原來減少了幾倍,而且精確程度得到了很大的提高。此外,樣機(jī)的實(shí)驗(yàn)與評(píng)價(jià)程序進(jìn)一步加快了設(shè)計(jì)過程。在制訂制造計(jì)劃時(shí),計(jì)算機(jī)輔助編制工藝規(guī)程可以從數(shù)以千計(jì)的工序和加工過程中選擇最好的加工方案。在車間里,分布式智能以微處理器這種形式來控制機(jī)床、操縱自動(dòng)裝卸料設(shè)備和收集關(guān)于當(dāng)前車間狀態(tài)的信息。但是這些各自獨(dú)立的改革還遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)不夠。我們所需要的是有一個(gè)共同的軟件從始端到終端進(jìn)行控制的全部自動(dòng)化的系統(tǒng)。一般來說,計(jì)算機(jī)集成可以提供廣泛的、及時(shí)的和精確的信息,可以改進(jìn)各部門之間的交流與溝通,實(shí)施更嚴(yán)格的控制,而且通常能增強(qiáng)整個(gè)系統(tǒng)的全面質(zhì)量和效率。例如,改進(jìn)交流和溝通意味著會(huì)使設(shè)計(jì)具有更好的可制造性。數(shù)控編程人員和工藝裝備設(shè)計(jì)人員有機(jī)會(huì)向產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)人員提出意見,反之亦然。因而可以減少技術(shù)反面的變更,而對(duì)于那些必要的變更,可以更有效地進(jìn)行處理。計(jì)算機(jī)不僅能夠更快地對(duì)變更之處做出詳細(xì)說明,而且還能把變更之后的數(shù)據(jù)告訴隨后的使用者。利用及時(shí)更新的生產(chǎn)控制數(shù)據(jù)可以制訂更好的工藝規(guī)程和更有效率的生產(chǎn)進(jìn)度。因而,可以使昂貴的設(shè)備更好的利用,提高零件在生產(chǎn)過程中運(yùn)送效率,減少在制品的成本。產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量也可以得到改進(jìn)。例如,不僅可以提高設(shè)計(jì)精度,還可以使質(zhì)量保證部門利用設(shè)計(jì)數(shù)據(jù),避免由于誤解而產(chǎn)生錯(cuò)誤??梢允谷藗兏玫耐瓿伤麄兊墓ぷ鳌Mㄟ^避免冗長(zhǎng)的計(jì)算和書寫工作—這還不算查找資料所浪費(fèi)的時(shí)間—計(jì)算機(jī)不僅使人們更有效的工作,而且還能把他們解放出來去做只有人類才能做工作:創(chuàng)造性思考。計(jì)算機(jī)集成制造還會(huì)吸引新的人才進(jìn)入制造業(yè)。人才被吸引過來的原因是他們希望到一個(gè)現(xiàn)代化的、技術(shù)先進(jìn)的環(huán)境中工作。在制造過程中,CAD/CAM減少了工藝裝備設(shè)計(jì)、數(shù)控編程和編制工藝規(guī)程所需要的時(shí)間。而且,在同時(shí)加快了響應(yīng)速度,這最終將會(huì)使目前外委加工的工作由公司內(nèi)部人員完成。二、數(shù)字控制先進(jìn)制造技術(shù)中的一個(gè)最基本的概念是數(shù)字控制(NC)。在數(shù)控技術(shù)出現(xiàn)之前,所有的機(jī)床都是由人工操縱和控制的。在與人工控制的機(jī)床有關(guān)的很多局限性中,操作者的技能大概是最突出的問題。采用人工控制時(shí),產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量直接與操作者的技能有關(guān)。數(shù)字控制代表了從人工控制機(jī)床走出來的第一步。數(shù)字控制意味著采用預(yù)先錄制的、存儲(chǔ)的符號(hào)指令來控制機(jī)床和其他制造系統(tǒng)。一個(gè)數(shù)控技師的工作不是去操縱機(jī)床,而是編寫能夠發(fā)出機(jī)床操作指令的程序。發(fā)展數(shù)控技術(shù)是為了克服人類操作者的局限性,而且它確實(shí)完成了這項(xiàng)工作。數(shù)字控制的機(jī)器比人工操縱的機(jī)器的精度更高、生產(chǎn)出零件的一致性更好、生產(chǎn)速度更快、而且長(zhǎng)期的工藝裝備成本更低。數(shù)控技術(shù)的發(fā)展導(dǎo)致了制造技術(shù)中其他幾項(xiàng)新發(fā)明的產(chǎn)生:1.電火花加工技術(shù)。2.激光切削。3.電子束焊接。數(shù)字控制還使得機(jī)床比它們采用人工操縱的前輩們的用途更為廣泛。一臺(tái)數(shù)控機(jī)床可以自動(dòng)生產(chǎn)很多種類的零件,每一個(gè)零件都可以有不同的和復(fù)雜的加工過程。數(shù)控可以使生產(chǎn)廠家承擔(dān)那些對(duì)于采用人工控制的機(jī)床和工藝來說,在經(jīng)濟(jì)上是不劃算的產(chǎn)品的生產(chǎn)任務(wù)。同許多先進(jìn)技術(shù)一樣,數(shù)控的誕生于麻省理工學(xué)院的實(shí)驗(yàn)室中。數(shù)控這個(gè)概念是50年代初在美國(guó)空軍的資助下提出來的。APT(自動(dòng)編程工具)語言是1956年在麻省理工學(xué)院的伺服機(jī)構(gòu)實(shí)驗(yàn)室中被設(shè)計(jì)出來的。這是一個(gè)專門適用于數(shù)控的編程語言,使用類似于英語的語句來定義零件的幾何形狀,描述切削刀具的形狀和規(guī)定必要的運(yùn)動(dòng)。APT語言的研究和發(fā)展是在數(shù)控技術(shù)進(jìn)一步發(fā)展過程中的一大進(jìn)步。最初的數(shù)控系統(tǒng)與今天應(yīng)用的數(shù)控系統(tǒng)是有很大的區(qū)別的。在那時(shí)的機(jī)床中,只有硬線邏輯電路。指令程序?qū)懺诖┛准垘希ㄋ髞肀凰芰洗艓〈?,采用帶閱讀機(jī)將寫在紙帶或磁帶上的指令給機(jī)器翻譯出來。所有這些共同構(gòu)成了機(jī)床數(shù)字控制方面的巨大進(jìn)步。然而,在數(shù)控發(fā)展的這個(gè)階段中還存在著許多的問題。一個(gè)主要問題是穿孔紙帶的易壞性。在機(jī)械加工過程中,載有編程指令信息的紙帶斷裂和被撕壞是常見的事情。在機(jī)床上每加工一個(gè)零件,都需要將載有編程指令的紙帶放入閱讀機(jī)中重新運(yùn)行一次。因此,這個(gè)問題變得很嚴(yán)重。如果需要制造100個(gè)某種零件,則應(yīng)該將紙帶分別通過閱讀機(jī)100次。易塤壞的紙帶顯然不能承受嚴(yán)酷的車間壞境和這種重復(fù)使用。這就導(dǎo)致了一種專門的塑料磁帶的研制。在紙帶上通過采用一系列的小孔來載有編程指令,而在塑料帶上通過采用一系列的磁點(diǎn)來載有編程指令。塑料帶的強(qiáng)度比紙帶的強(qiáng)度要高很多,這可以解決常見的撕壞和斷裂問題。然而,它仍然存在著兩個(gè)問題。其中最重要的一個(gè)問題是,對(duì)輸入到帶中的指令進(jìn)行修改是非常困難的,或者是根本不可能的。即使對(duì)指令程序進(jìn)行最微小的調(diào)整,也必須中斷加工,制作一條新帶。而且?guī)ㄟ^閱讀機(jī)的次數(shù)還必須與需要加工的零件的個(gè)數(shù)相同。幸運(yùn)的是,計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)的應(yīng)用實(shí)際應(yīng)用很快解決了數(shù)控技術(shù)中與穿孔紙帶和塑料帶有關(guān)的問題。在形成了直接數(shù)字控制(DNC)這個(gè)概念之后,可以不再采用紙帶或塑料帶作為編程指令的載體,這樣就解決了與之有關(guān)的問題。在直接數(shù)字控制中,幾臺(tái)機(jī)床通過數(shù)據(jù)傳輸線路連接到一臺(tái)主計(jì)算機(jī)上。操縱這些機(jī)床所需要的程序都存儲(chǔ)在這臺(tái)主計(jì)算機(jī)中。當(dāng)需要時(shí),通過數(shù)據(jù)傳輸線路提供給每臺(tái)機(jī)床。直接數(shù)字控制是在穿孔紙帶和塑料帶基礎(chǔ)上的一大進(jìn)步。然而,它也有著同其他依賴于主計(jì)算機(jī)的技術(shù)一樣的局限性。當(dāng)計(jì)算機(jī)出現(xiàn)故障時(shí),由其控制的所有機(jī)床都將停止工作。這個(gè)問題促使了計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)字控制技術(shù)的產(chǎn)生。微處理器的發(fā)展為可編程邏輯控制器和微型計(jì)算機(jī)的發(fā)展做好了準(zhǔn)備。這兩種技術(shù)為計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)控(CNC)的發(fā)展打下了基礎(chǔ)。采用CNC技術(shù)后,每臺(tái)機(jī)床上都有一個(gè)可編程邏輯控制器或者微機(jī)對(duì)其進(jìn)行數(shù)字控制。這可以使得程序被輸入和存儲(chǔ)在每臺(tái)機(jī)床內(nèi)部。它還可以在機(jī)床以外編制程序,并將其下載到每臺(tái)機(jī)床中。計(jì)算機(jī)數(shù)控解決了主計(jì)算機(jī)發(fā)生故障所帶來的問題,但是它產(chǎn)生了另一個(gè)被稱為數(shù)據(jù)管理的問題。同一個(gè)程序可能要分別裝入十個(gè)相互之間沒有通訊聯(lián)系的微機(jī)中。這個(gè)問題目前正在解決之中,它是通過采用局部網(wǎng)絡(luò)將各個(gè)微機(jī)連接起來,以利于更好地進(jìn)行數(shù)據(jù)管理。三、編程人員熟練的零件編程人員是有效地利用數(shù)控機(jī)床的基本要求。他們的工作決定了這些機(jī)床的工作效率和在機(jī)床本身,工廠的數(shù)控輔助設(shè)備和管理費(fèi)用等方面的投資所能得到的經(jīng)濟(jì)回報(bào)。目前,熟練地零件加工數(shù)控編程人員非常短缺。這不僅表明了在機(jī)械加工業(yè)普遍缺少有經(jīng)驗(yàn)的人員,而且也表明隨著越來越多地通過應(yīng)用數(shù)控機(jī)床來增加生產(chǎn)能力、通用性和生產(chǎn)率,對(duì)編程人員的需求也日益增多。就一個(gè)行業(yè)而言,明顯的答案是通過培訓(xùn)來培養(yǎng)新的編程人員,而且可以通過許多途徑進(jìn)行這種培訓(xùn)。首先應(yīng)該確定編程人員應(yīng)該具備什么條件和參加培訓(xùn)的編程人員應(yīng)該學(xué)習(xí)什么?根據(jù)全國(guó)機(jī)床制造廠商協(xié)會(huì)編寫的《選擇適當(dāng)?shù)臄?shù)控編程方法》這本小冊(cè)子,手工編程人員主要應(yīng)該具備下列各項(xiàng)條件:機(jī)械制造經(jīng)驗(yàn)編程人員對(duì)其要進(jìn)行編程的數(shù)控機(jī)床的性能應(yīng)該有透徹的了解,還要了解車間中其他車床的基本性能。他們還應(yīng)該在金屬切削原理和實(shí)踐、刀具的切削能力、夾具和加持技術(shù)等方面又廣泛的知識(shí)和感受力。編程人員還應(yīng)當(dāng)能夠顯著降低生產(chǎn)成本的制造工程技術(shù)方面得到適當(dāng)?shù)呐嘤?xùn)。空間想象力編程人員應(yīng)該能夠想象出零件的三維形狀,機(jī)床的切削運(yùn)動(dòng),在刀具、工件、夾具或者機(jī)床本身之間可能產(chǎn)生的干涉。數(shù)學(xué)算術(shù)、代數(shù)、三角學(xué)、幾何等方面的知識(shí)是非常重要的。高等數(shù)學(xué),諸如高等代數(shù)、微積分等,通常是不需要的。對(duì)細(xì)節(jié)的關(guān)注編程人員應(yīng)該是具有敏銳的觀察能力并且是非常認(rèn)真仔細(xì)精確的人。要改正在機(jī)床編排過程中發(fā)現(xiàn)的編程錯(cuò)誤,可能會(huì)花費(fèi)很多的金錢和時(shí)間。在這一本小冊(cè)子的另一個(gè)地方提到:“與計(jì)算機(jī)輔助編程相比,手工編程要求編程人員在機(jī)床及其控制系統(tǒng)、加工過程、計(jì)算方法等方面掌握更多的知識(shí)。另一方面,采用計(jì)算機(jī)輔助編程,應(yīng)該掌握計(jì)算機(jī)編程語言和運(yùn)用這種語言所需要的計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)知識(shí)。一般來說,由于涉及到許多細(xì)節(jié),手工編程更慢和更為需要。在計(jì)算機(jī)輔助編程中,這些細(xì)節(jié)知識(shí)都包含在計(jì)算機(jī)系統(tǒng)(處理程序,后置處理程序)中?!睌?shù)控技術(shù)和培訓(xùn)方面的專家通常同意這些條件和要求,他們還增加了一些次要方面的細(xì)節(jié)要求。諸如:閱讀圖紙、不同種類金屬的切削性能、車間測(cè)量?jī)x器的使用、公差、安全措施等方面的知識(shí)。應(yīng)該到哪里去尋找可以進(jìn)行培訓(xùn)的學(xué)員呢?首先在你自己工廠的車間里。埃德華F斯羅斯,一位辛辛那提米蘭克朗公司主管銷售的副總經(jīng)理,這樣說:“我們?cè)谂嘤?xùn)車工和鏜銑工成為編程人員方面有很成功的經(jīng)驗(yàn)。他們沒有認(rèn)識(shí)到,但是實(shí)際上他們工作的大部分時(shí)間都在編程,而且他們又車間所需要的基礎(chǔ)數(shù)學(xué)和三角學(xué)知識(shí)。你可以很容易地教會(huì)他們編程。反之,將一個(gè)能力很強(qiáng)的數(shù)學(xué)家培養(yǎng)成編程人員則很困難。對(duì)他來說,軌跡的編程很容易。但是如何完成軌跡的加工---進(jìn)給量、切削速度等---這可能需要更多的培訓(xùn)。”采用功能較強(qiáng)的計(jì)算機(jī)輔助編程后,對(duì)編程人員在金屬切削知識(shí)方面的要求就降低了。通過應(yīng)用這種軟件,辛辛那提米蘭克朗公司成功地雇用了一些大學(xué)剛畢業(yè)的學(xué)生,其中還包含一些非技術(shù)專業(yè)畢業(yè)的大學(xué)生。通過先對(duì)這些學(xué)員在工廠中進(jìn)行機(jī)床實(shí)際操作培訓(xùn),然后再對(duì)他們進(jìn)行編程方面的培訓(xùn),將他們培養(yǎng)成零件數(shù)控加工的編程人員。當(dāng)然,所有的數(shù)控機(jī)床生產(chǎn)廠家對(duì)他們的產(chǎn)品會(huì)提供某種編程培訓(xùn)而且大部分廠家提供正式的培訓(xùn)計(jì)劃。例如,米蘭克朗公司的銷售部門就有20名專門培訓(xùn)客戶的教師。這個(gè)公司對(duì)參加培訓(xùn)的學(xué)員的預(yù)先要求有下列各項(xiàng):“參加人員應(yīng)該了解機(jī)械加工車間的安全規(guī)程,能夠看懂零件圖、剖面圖和工件的數(shù)控程序單?!薄靶枰莆掌矫鎺缀?、直角三角學(xué)和公差的基本知識(shí)?!薄斑€需要具有零件手工數(shù)控編程、數(shù)控機(jī)床的編排和操作過程、零件加工、金屬切削技術(shù)、刀具和夾具等方面的知識(shí)。”將具有以上基礎(chǔ)的人送到學(xué)校,將能夠保證數(shù)控機(jī)床的使用者從他們所花在培訓(xùn)上的錢(盡管培訓(xùn)費(fèi)已經(jīng)包括在購買機(jī)床的基本費(fèi)用中,接受培訓(xùn)的人員需要花費(fèi)一周的時(shí)間、交通費(fèi)、生活費(fèi))中,得到最大的收益。

教師見習(xí)報(bào)告總結(jié)期待已久的見習(xí)已經(jīng)結(jié)束了,在龍巖三中高中部見習(xí)聽課,雖然只是短短的兩個(gè)星期,但感觸還是蠻深的,以前作為一名學(xué)生坐在課室聽課,和現(xiàn)在作為一名準(zhǔn)教師坐在課室聽課是完全不同的感受,感覺自己學(xué)到了一些在平時(shí)課堂上學(xué)不到的東西。在這里,我獲得的不僅是經(jīng)驗(yàn)上的收獲,更多是教學(xué)管理,課堂教學(xué)等的理念,以及他們帶給我

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