語言學期末這份是正確的

.WhatisIanguage1.Languagecanbegenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Systematic----rule-governed,elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules;can'tbecombinedatwill..*bkli,*Iappleeat.Arbitrary----nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.Symbolic——wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”——ShakespeareVocal----theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.Human-specific----differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.Thedesign/defining/distinctivefeaturesofhumanIanguage:Arbitrariness（任意性）Productivity/Creativity（創(chuàng)立性）Duality（二元性、二層性）Displacement（移位性）Culturaltransmission（文化傳達性）2.語言&語言Langue---theIanguagesystemsharedbyacommunityofspeakersParole---theconcreteactofspeakinginactualsituationsbyanindividualspeaker.3.Synchronicvs.diachronicSynchronic（linguistics）---languagesarestudiedatatheoreticpointintime:onedescribesa

‘

state

'

ofIanguage,disregardingwhateverchangesmightbetakingplace.Diachronic----Ianguagesarestudiedfrompointofviewoftheirhistoricaldevelopment—forexample,thechangeswhichhavetakenplacebetweenOldandModernEnglishcouldbedescribedinphonological,grammaticalandsemanticterms.二?語音學（選擇題）三?音位學Phonology音位變體Allophones——thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.同一音位在不同樣環(huán)境中表現出來的兩個或多個語音上不同樣的音段

.比方，在英語里，音位

/t/

在

tin

里是送氣的[th],

在

stand

里是不送氣的

[t]，在

eighth

里是齒化的

[t],

在

cotton

里是鼻除阻的

[tn]

,在

bottle

里是邊除阻的[tl],

在

hit

里則表現為聲門化的

[t].其他，隨著說話人口音的不同樣，可能還會有其他的語音形式

.這樣一套在說話人話語中的語音形式就是音位

/t/

的音位變體

.把兩個音素劃歸成同一音位的兩個音位變體必定滿足語音相似性原則，而且它們不能夠處于比較分布[p,ph]aretwodifferentphones音子andarevariantsofthephoneme/p/.Suchvariantsofaphonemearecalledallophonesofthesamephoneme.Inthiscasetheallophonesaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution互補分布becausetheyneveroccurinthesamecontext:[p]occursafter[s]while[ph]occursinotherplaces./p/[p]/[s]_______[ph]elsewhere互補分布Complementarydistribution----allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,.dark[l]&clear[l],aspirated[p]&unaspirated[p].四?形態(tài)學**Morphemes:Technically,amorphemeisdefinedasaminimalmeaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofacomponentsofawordareknownasmorphemes.Theythemselvescannotbefurtheranalyzed:chairman:chair,mantownhall:town,hallboys:boy,-schecking:check,-ingdisappointment:dis-,appoint,-mentFreemorpheme&boundmorpheme自由語素和粘著語素Freemorpheme----isonethatmayconstituteaword(freeform)byitself,suchasbed,tree,sing,dance,etc.Boundmorpheme----isonethatmayappearwithatleastoneothermorpheme.Theycannotstandbythemselves,suchas-sindogs,alinnational,dis-indisclose,edinrecorded,etc.**Derivationalmorpheme&inflectionalmorpheme派生語素和屈折性語素Derivationalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichchangethecategory,orgrammaticalclassofwords,.correct---incorrect,edit---co-edit,modern---modernize,length---lengthen,fool---foolish,etc.Inflectionalmorphemes----themorphemeswhichareforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,signifyingsuchconceptsastense,number,caseandsoon;theyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,.a)number:tablesmatchesfactoriesperson,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedcase:John/John'scomparison:tall/taller/tallest1.構詞法wordformationCompound:smartphone,cutting-edge,domainname,cloakroom衣帽間,state-of-the-artontrol,armchairDerivation派生法：un+consciousunconscious,nation+alnational,national+izenationalizenationalize+ationnationalizationInvention(新創(chuàng)詞語):Facebook,Twitter,drones,microblog,e-tailer,smartphone,tsunami

頂尖的,nursinghome,self-cBlending(

混成法):smoke+fog>smogmotorist+hotel>motelbreakfast+lunch>brunchmodulator+demodulator>modemsmoking+flirting>smirting邊吸煙邊跟異性搭訕advertisement+editorial〉advertorialeducation+entertainment>edutainmentinformation+commercial>infomercialinformation+entertainment>Infortainment新聞娛樂化in+love+individual>inlovidual獨立愛人Abbreviation(縮寫詞):advertisement--ad;helicopter--copter;influenza--fluAcronym(縮寫詞):WB---WorldBankCIA---CentralIntelligeneeAgencyWTO--CPI---ConsumerPriceIndex花銷者物價指數UNESCO--聯合國教科文組織NEET---NotinEducation,EmploymentorTraining啃老族Clipping(截斷法):Back-clippings:ad(vertisement),chimp(anzee),deli(catessen),hippo(potamus),piano(forte),reg(ulation)s,app(lication)program(應用軟件)Fore-clippings:(ham)burger,(omni)bus,(violin)cello,(heli)copter,(alli)gator,(tele)phone,(earth)quake.Fore-and-aftclippings:(in)flu(enza),(de)tec(tive).Back-formation(逆構詞法):ganglinggangleeditoreditpeddlerpeddlehawkerhawkenthusiasmenthuselaserlasecalmativecalmfreeassociationfree-associateAnalogicalcreation(類推構詞)：work:wrought>worked；beseech:besought>beseeched；slay:slew>slayedBorrowing(借詞):BorrowfromotherIanguages.Chinese:kungfu,tea,tofu,typhoon;Japanese:TsunamiIndian:bungalow,jungle,yoga五?句法學畫樹形圖'ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsallthe2.Chomsky提出：形式主義的變換生成語法TransformationalGenerativeGrammar、UniversalGrammar、LAD語言習得體系Ianguageacquisition3.表層結構和深層結構Deepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefoIIowingpairofsentences:JohniseasytopIease.JohniseagertopIease.StructuraIIysimiIarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Consideronemoresentence:FIyingpIanescanbedangerous.Itcanmeaneitherthat:ifyoufIypIanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPIanesthatarefIyingaredangerous.Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruIeinaccordancewiththeheadunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten..語義學SemanticsistraditionallydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginIanguage.Typesofmeaning:GrammaticalmeaningLexicalmeaning①Conceptualmeaning看法意義②Associationmeaning聯想意義a.Connotativemeaning內涵意義b.Socialmeaning社會意義c.Affectivemeaning感情義義d.Reflectedmeaning反射意義e.Collocatinvemeaning搭配意義③Thematicmeaning主位意義(1)Conceptualmeaning看法意義Alsocalled‘denotative'(夕卜延的)or‘cognitive'meaning.Referstological,cognitiveordenotativecontent.Concernedwiththerelationshipbetweenawordandthethingitdenotes,orrefersto.(2)Connotativemeaning(內涵意義)Thecommunicativevalueanexpressionhasbyvirtueofwhatitrefersto,overandaboveitspurelyconceptualcontent.SocialmeaningWhatapieceofIanguageconveysaboutthesocialcircumstancesofitsuse.⑷Affectivemeaning(感情義義)Reflectingthepersonalfeelingsofthespeaker,includinghisattitudetothelistener,orhisattitudetosomethingheistalkingabout.ReflectedmeaningArisesincasesofmultipleconceptualmeaning,whenonesenseofawordformspartofourresponsetoanothersense.反響意義指的是一個語詞或語句除了自己的意義以外還順帶隱射或隱含了其他意義，或聯想意義即引起讀者聯想的意義。Whenyouhear‘clickthemousetwice',youthinkofGerrybeinghittwicebyTomsoyoufeelexcited.Manytabootermsareresultofthis.(6)CollocativemeaningTheassociationsawordacquiresonaccountofthemeaningsofwordswhichtendtooccurinitsenvironment.pretty:girl,boy,woman,flower,garden,color,village,etc.handsome:boy,man,car,vessel,overcoat,airliner,typewriter,etc.ThematicmeaningWhatiscommunicatedbythewayinwhichaspeakerorwriterorganizesthemessage,intermsofordering,focus,andemphasis.Mrs.BessieSmithdonatedthefirstprize.ThefirstprizewasdonatedbyMrs.BessieSmith.Theystoppedattheendofthecorridor.Attheendofthecorridor,theystopped.2.SenserelationsMajorsenserelations:SynonymyHyponymy上下意義關系

同義關系

,Antonymy

反義關系

,Polysemy

一詞多義關系

,Homonymy

同音/同形異義關系，Synonymyreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaning.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms.1)Dialectalsynonyms方言/地域同義詞----synonymsusedindifferentregionaldialects,.autumn-fall,biscuit-cracker,petrol—gasoline,lift--elevator;2)Stylisticsynonyms文體/風格同義詞----synonymsdifferinginstyle,.kid,child,offspring;start,begin,commenee;3)Synonymsthatdifferinconnotation感情同義詞----thesearewordsthatbearthesamemeaningbutexpressdifferentemotionsoftheuser,includingtheattitudeorbiasoftheusertowardwhatheistalkingabout,.Thetwowordscollaboratorandaccomplicesynonymousinthattheysharethemeaningofapersonwhohelpsanother”buttheydifferinthatacollaboratorhelpsanotherindoingsthgood,whileanaccomplicehelpsanotherinacriminalact.Antonymy:Thetermisusedforoppositenessofmeaning;wordsthatareoppositeinmeaningareantonyms.1)Gradableantonyms等級反義關系----thereareoftenintermediateformsbetweenthetwomembersofapair,.old-young,hot-cold,tall-short,2)Complementaryantonyms互補反義關系----thedenialofonememberofthepairimpliestheassertionoftheother,.alive-dead,male-female,3)Relationalopposites關系反義關系----exhibitsthereversaloftherelationshipbetweenthetwoitems,.husband-wife,father-son,doctor-patient,buy-sell,let-rent,employer-employee,give-receive,above-below,Hyponymy——thesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.Hyponymyisarelationofinclusion.Superordinate上義詞:thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaning.Hyponyms下義詞:thewordwhichismorespecificinmeaning.3)Co-hyponyms同下義詞:hyponymsofthesamesuperordinate.Forexample:Superordinate:flowerHyponyms:rose,tulip,lily,chrysanthemum,peony,narcissus,Polysemycanbedefinedasoneform(writtenorspoken)havingmultiplemeaningsthatareallrelatedbyextension,thatis,thesameonewordmayhavemorethanonemeaning,.able'maymean:ApieceoffurnitureAllthepeopleseatedatatableThefoodthatisputonatableAthinflatpieceofstone,metalwood,etc.Orderlyarrangementoffacts,figures,time,etc.Homonymy——thephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform,.differentwordsareidenticalinsoundorspelling,orinboth.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,theyarehomophones(

同音異形異義詞

).Whentwowordsareidenticalinspelling,theyarehomographs(

同形異義詞.Whentwowordsareidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,theyarecompletehomonyms(

完好同音同形異義詞)..Homophones:rain/reign;Homographs:bow(v.)/bow(n.);Completehomonyms:fast(adj

knight/night;piece/peace;leak/leektear(v.)/tear(n.);Iead(v.)/lead(n.)快速的)./fast(v.齋戒);scale(n.)/scale(v.)必要的)thoughts,feelingsandintentions,and(ii)must**Felicityconditions合適條件：Context&Ianguageuse:Semanticfield語義場Thebasicassumptionunderlyingthetheoryofsemanticfieldisthatworddonotexistinisolation;rather,theyformdifferentsemanticfields,suchastheanimalfieldwhichcontainsallkindsofwordsthatdenoteanimals,orthecookingwhichincludesvariouswordsrelatedtocooking.Wordsthatbelongtothesamesemanticclassinthesamesemanticfield..Pragmatics語用學1.Definition:thestudyofIanguageinuseorIanguagecommunication;thestudyofmeaningincontext.Sentencemeaning句子意義agrammaticalconcept.Itisanabstract,self-containedunitinisolationfromcontext.(whatXmeans.)Utteraneemeaning:話語意義somethingaspeakeruttersinacertainsituationwithacertainpurpose.(WhatyoumeanbyX)Utteraneemeaningmaybeseenasthesumtotalofsentencemeaningandcontext.語境：linguisticknowledge&extra-linguisticknowledge語言知識和超語言知識Linguisticknowledge:knowledgeofIanguage;knowledgeofwhathasbeensaidExtra-linguisticknowledge:knowledgeaboutthespecificsituation;knowledgeoftheworld;knowledgeabouteachother.Backgroundknowledge:commonsense,socialnormsandconversationrulesKnowledgeaboutthesituation:usuallyreferredtoassituationalknowledgeorsituationalcontext,includingtime,place,topicformalityandrelationbetweenthespeakerandhearer.Contextdeterminesthehearer'interpretationofwhatissaidtohimaswellasgoverningthespeaker'useofIanguage.3.Speechacttheory語言行為理論TheSpeechActtheorywasfirstputforwardbyJohnAustin,anOxfordprofessor,inHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962).ThetheorywaslaterdevelopedbyAnAmericanphilosopher,JohnSearle,inSpeechAct:AnEssayinthePhilosophyofLanguage(1975).Byspeechacts,werefertoactionsperformedbymeansofu卄erance.Austindiscoveredthatthesentencesweusefallintotwodifferenttypes:constatives表述句andperformatives施為句.Thetermconstativesisusedtorefertosentencesthatdescribewhatthespeakerisdoingatthetimeofspeaking.(Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.)Constativesareverifiable.Theycaneitherbetrueorfalse.Performativesdonotdescribethings.Theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Theutteraneeofthesesentences,instead,is,orisapartof,thedoingofanaction.(Ideclarethemeetingopen.)Austinsuggestedthefollowingfelicityconditions:Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure,andtherelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.Theproceduremustbeexecuted(i)correctlyand(ii)completely.Veryoften,(i)therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisite(followitupwithactionsasspecified.**GrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesAsforthegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesofperformativesentences,Austinnoticesthattypicalperformativesusefirstpersonsingularsubject,simplepresenttense,indicativemood,activevoiceandperformativeverbs.Butthesearenotabsolutecriteriaandtherearealwaysexceptions.Austin'newmodelofspeechacts:Locutionaryact言專家為:theutteraneeofasentencewithspecificsenseandreference;(It'coldinhere.)Thelocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliterarymeaningit'coldinhere.”Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestofthehearertoshutthewindow.Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearer'sshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.Illocutionaryact言外行為:themakingofastatement,offer,promise,etc.inutteringasentence,byvirtueoftheconventionalforceassociatedwithit;Whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryacts.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcohereneeinseeminglyincoherentconversations.Typesofillocutionaryacts:Austinclassifiedillocutionaryactsinto5types.SearlemadeimprovementsonthebasisofAustinAssertives陳述型:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertothetruthofsomething.Thedegreeofcommitmentvariesfromstatementtostatement.Thecommitmentissmallinguesshehadgotit”butverystronginf'solemnlyswearthathehadgotit.”

'

sclassification.

“Verbsincludedinthisfunctionare:guess,affirm,allege,assist,announce,forecast,insist,predict...Directives指令型:sentencesbywhichthespeakertriestogetthehearertodosomething.(Ibegyoutogivemesomeadvice.)Verbsthatcandenotethisgroupare:ask,request,plead,entreat,command,advise,etc.Commissives承諾型:sentencesthatcommitthespeakertosomefutureaction.Promisesandoffersarecharacteristicofthisgroup.(Ipromisetocometomorrow.)Warningisalsoacommissive,as"IfyoudothatagainI'llbeatyoutodeath”,becauseitalsocommitsthespeakertodoingsomething.Verbsthatcandenotethisgroupinclude:offer,pledge,swear,vow,volunteer,etc.Expressives表情型:sentencesthatexpressthespeaker'spsychologicalstateaboutsomething.(Iapologizeforsteppingonyourtoe.)Verbstypicallyusedforthiscategoryinelude:thank,congratulate,apologize,welcome,deplore,etc.Declarations宣告型:sentencesthatbringaboutimmediatechangeintheexistingstateofaffairs.(Youarefired.)Verbsthatcanbeusedforthisgroupinclude:declare,appoint,nominate,resign,name,fire,etc.Perlocutionaryact言后行為：thebringingaboutofeffectsontheaudieneebymeansofutteringthesentence,sucheffectsbeingspecialtothecircumstancesofutteranee.**IndirectspeechactsAmajorcontributionSearlemadetothedevelopmentofspeechacttheoryishistheoryofindirectspeechacts.Indirectspeechactsrefertothosesentencesthatperformoneillocutionaryactindirectlybyperforminganother.Forexample,“Canyoupassthesalt,please”isbothaquestionaboutthehearer'sabilitytopassthesaltandarequestofhimtopassthesalt.Theproblemhereishowitispossibleforthespeakertosayonethingandmeananotherandhowitispossibleforthehearertounderstandtheindirectspeechact.Typesofindirectrequests:Group1:Sentencesconcerningthehearersabilitytodosomething:CanyoureachthebookoverthereGroup2:Sentencesconcerningthespeakerswishorwantthatthehearerwilldosomething:(Iwouldlikeyoutowritethisdown.)Group3:Sentencesconcerningthehearesdoingsomething:WouldyoukindlygetoffmyfootGroup4:Sentencesconcerningthehearersdesireorwillingnesstodosomething:(Doyouwanttotypethisletterformenow)Group5:Sentencesconcerningreasonsfordoingsomething:(YoushouldwritetothemeverynowandThen.)cooperativeprinciples合作原貝UOurtalkexchangesaretosomedegreecooperativeefforts,andeachparticipantrecognizesinthemacommonpurposeorsetofpurposes.Inotherwords,weseemtofollowsomeprincipleswhenwetalk,andwecalltheprinciplesTheCooperativePrinciples",orCPinshort.

(在所有的語言交際活動中，說話人和聽話人之間為

了達到某一個共同的交際目標，都有一種默契，一種雙方都應遵守的原則，即合作原則。

)FourCategoriesofMaxims四個準則)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidenee.QuantityMaxim(數量準則)：1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.(Jane:WherewereyouthismorningTom:Iwasout.Here,Tom