語言學(xué)導(dǎo)論音位規(guī)則與超音段

1、PhonologicalRulesandSuprasegmentalPhonology PhonologicalThe relationship between the phonemic representations and the phonetic representations is rule-governed. These phonological rules relate the minimally specified phonemic representation to the phonetic representation and are part of a speakers k

2、nowledge of the language. The phonemic representation need only include the nonpredictable distinctive features of the string of phonemes that represent the words. The phonetic representation derived by applying these rules includes all the linguistically relevant phonetic aspects of the sounds.Some

3、phonologicalSequentialThe rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language are called sequential rules.Phonemes of a language can not be strung together in any random order to form words.Everylanguagehascertainconditionsorconstraintsthatgovernthepossible sequences of phonemes in

4、its words. These various conditions add up to phonological patterns that all words and syllables of the language must conform to.Experiment: Suppose you were given four cards, each of which had a different phoneme of English printed on it: K, B, L, I. and you were asked to arrange these cards to for

5、m all the possible words that these four phonemes could form.Youmightorderthemasblik,klib,bilk,kilb. lbki, bkil ilkbAlthough /blik/ and /klib/ are not existing words, they both sound possible English words, while /lbki/, /bkil/ and /ilkb/ are impermissible combinations of the four sounds.This shows

6、that there are sequential rules which govern the combination of sounds into a sequence.Thephonologicalsystemofalanguagenotonlyincludestheinventoryofphonemicand phonetic units, but also the rule governing the phonological patterning, in what way phonemes can be combined.Ifawordbeginswitha/l/or/r/soun

7、d,thenthenextmustbeavowel,asinlight,lid, loud, low, lot; read, red, rib, rod, rough.Afteraconsonantlike /b/,/g/,/k/or /p/,another stopconsonant isnot Ifthesounds/ch(ill)/and/g(ene)/beginaword,thenextsoundmustbeavowel,as in chill, china, cheep, chime, Chad, chat, chimney, cheese; gene, genetic, gymna

8、sium, .No more than three sequential consonants can occur at the beginning of a word. Andthecombinationofthethreeconsonantsshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:ThefirstphonememustbeThesecondphonememustbe/p/,/t/,orThethirdphonememustbe/l/,/r/,/j/orThe combination of severalconsonants is called consonant

9、cluster, e.g. prick, asked, street, glimpseInEnglish,thelongestsequenceofconsonantclusterisfourconsonants,asinthe word sixths /sikss/.Therulesconstrainsequencesofphonemesnotonlyinwords,butalsoinsyllables.That is, only the clusters that can begin a word can begin a syllable in a word. For example, th

10、e sequence /str-/ and /spl-/ can appear not only in word-initial position (as in the word strain and splash)butalso in the syllable-initial position(asinthe secondsyllable ofthe word constrain and explicit).The syllable can be structured hierarchically into the following three componentsthe onset(be

11、ginning) （起音）thenucleus （音核）andthecoda(end) （收音）The nucleus is the essential part which a syllable must contain, while the onset and coda are margins, which may be absent from it.-In this example, the English word plant consists of a single CCVCC syllable. This syllable has been broken up into its o

12、nset (any consonants preceding the vowel) and its rhyme (all phonemes from the vowel to the end of the syllable).The rhymehas been further dividedinto the nucleus, which in the vast majority of syllables is a vowel (the exceptions are syllabic consonants) and the coda, which are any consonants follo

13、wing the nucleus. (The rhyme is obligatory = the head of the syllable)Someotherflounce: onset=rhyme=/ans/ nucleus = /a/ coda = /ns/onset /fr/ rhyme = /i/ nucleus=/i/ coda zeroonset zero rhyme=/it/ nucleus = /i/ coda = /t/In many languages, the most common type of syllable has the structure CV(C), th

14、at is, a single consonant followed by a vowel, possibly followed in turn by a single A syllable without a coda, that is, a syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable (開音節(jié)). And a syllable checked or arrested by a consonant is a closed syllable (閉音節(jié)). In closed syllables any vowel can occur. But

15、in stressed open syllables, only tense vowels (long vowels and diphthongs) occur.Syllable forms a unit of phonological structure, individual phonemes occur in sequences that make up syllables, and syllables in turn occur in sequences that make up words.Thestudyofsyllablestructure,thepossiblecombinat

16、ionsofphonemes,isknownas phonotactics (音位結(jié)構(gòu)學(xué)), or syntagmatic phonology (結(jié)構(gòu)段音系學(xué)).Rules governing the sequencing of phonemes are language-specific, what is a permissible sequence in one language may not be so in another language. That is, all languages have constraints on permitted sequence of phonem

17、es, but different languages have different constraints. In Chinese, the onset and coda can only be a single consonant.English Monosyllabic English has a large number of monosyllabic words. All monosyllabic words in English have a single vowel. By examining the legal consonant + vowel sequences inEng

18、lishmonosyllabicwordswecangetagoodideaofwhattypesofsyllable structure are legal in English.Open Closed It is clear from this list that English has a very flexible syllable structure. There are languages at the opposite extreme that have only CV syllables.AssimilationThe assimilation rule assimilates

19、 one segment to another by copying or spreading a feature of a sequential phoneme, making the two phones more similar. They are caused by articulatory process. There is a tendency when we speak to increase the ease of articulation. Consonants are articulated at the same place of articulation.Eg.Nasa

20、l Vowels in The vowel nasalization rule in English is an assimilation rule, because it involves taking the +nasal feature on the segment following the vowel and adding it to the vowel, making the value of nasal identical for the two Theformerinfluencesthee.g.helped,stayed,gazed(voiceless+/t/,voiced+

21、Thelatterinfluencethee.g. The nasal /n/ occurring in a word has varying pronunciation. The rule is that the nasal consonant assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The prefix in is pronounced differently asin, i or im when occurring in different indiscrete alveolarin; inco

22、nceivable velari bilabial imThesoundassimilationisreflectedinspellinginmostcases,suchasimpossible, implausible, import, illegal, irrelevant.Mutualinfluencebetweentheformerande.g./s+j/-/sugar,thisyear/isemeasure,/t+j/-/t/nature,dontyou /dunt /d+j/-/d3/soldier,didyou AdditionAdditionrule adds a whole

23、-* An optional rule in English inserts a voiceless stop after a nasal followed by a voiceless consonant. The voiceless stop that is inserted in these words is produced at the same place of articulation as the nasal. That is, it is the labial p after the labial m, the alveolar t after the alveolar n,

24、 or the velar k after the velar e.g.mince /mins/- /sens/-/frmkin/-/le/-DeletionDeletion rule tells when a phonemic segment is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.-*Delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. e.g. The letter g is mute in sign, design, and paradigm,

25、 it is pronounced in the corresponding derivatives of these words signature, designation and paradigmatic.In ordinary everyday speech most of us also delete the unstressed vowels that are shown in brackets in words like the following:myst(e)ry,gen(e)ral,mem(o)ry,fun(e)ral,vig(o)rous,Movement(metathe

26、sis)Movement rule moves phonemes from one place in the string to another, that is, reorder or switch segments.Childrensspeechshowsmanycasesofmetathesis /speketi/ -/pri:-/-per-,clasp-clapse(old/middleSuprasegmental phonology(超音段音位It is the study of phonological properties of units lager than the segm

27、ent-phoneme. Theyaresyllable(音節(jié)）stress,（重音）wordstress,sentencestress,tone/pitch（聲調(diào)）andintonation（語調(diào)Stress is the emphasis given to syllables , where it is pronounced with a relatively greater amount of energy, Thus the intensity and duration are increased and pitch changed.According to the context o

28、f discussion, whether stress is considered in the context of the word in isolationorinthecontextofconnectedspeech,stresscanbedividedintotwotypes: word stressand sentence stress.Stressisarelativenotion.MonosyllabicwordscannotbesaidtohavewordIn some words, more than one vowel is stressed, but if so, o

29、ne of these stressed vowels receives greater stress than the others. The most highly stressed vowel is indicated by an acute accent over the vowel which is said to receive the accent, or primary stress or main stress強(qiáng)重音; the other stressed vowels are indicated by marking a grave accent over the vowe

30、ls which are said to receive secondary stressFactorsdeterminetheplacementofIn some languages, the position of the syllable in a word determines whether it is stressed. Languages such as Hungarian (first syllable), Turkish (last syllable) and Polish (next to the last syllable) have fixed stress. In o

31、ther languages such as English, stress is free, it is not tied to any particular syllable of a word.MainpatternsofstressinEnglishe.g.2-visit,yellow,asleep,today,confirm,e.g.3-|.hospital,elephant,accurate,.|.direction,tomorrow,eleven,-.|understand,Japanese,e.g.4-.|.community,development,-.|.education

32、,information,miserable,personally,e.g. 5-syllable.-.|.pronunciation,examination,consideration -.|. satisfactory, nationality,Stressinconnectionwiththesyntacticclassofthe111111222222Morphologicalmake-upoftheThemainstressfallsontheprecedingsyllableinwordswithendingslike-ity,-ion,-ify,-ible,-igible,-Se

33、ntenceandphraseWhen words are combined into phrases and sentences, one of the syllables receives greater stress than all others. Only one of the vowels in a word receives primary stress or accent; all other stressed vowels arereduced to secondary stress.The same sentence with different primary stres

34、s can have different meaning.e.g.JacklikesSentencestressdiffersfromwordstressintwoMonosyllabicwordsmaytakesentencePolysyllabicwordsmayhavethestressonadifferentsyllableformwhereitisin isolation or they may lose it completely.FactorsinfluencingsentenceRelative importance of the word. The more importan

35、t a word is, the stronger is its stress. In English, the important words are usually (in the absence of special emphasis) nouns, adjectives, main verbs, adverbs and demonstrative pronouns. Auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, prepositions are not normally stressed.Rhythmic considerations. Stressed syllabl

36、es tend to recur at regular intervals time, the stress pattern is especially affected by the rhythm. There is a tendency to avoid having stresses too close together. Stressed words are usually interposed by unstressed words. This tendency may cause a word to be stressed on one syllable in one senten

37、ce and on another or none at in another sentence.e.g. Shes fifteen years old.Shesonlyfifteen. He went away.John went away.MarysyoungerbrotherwantsfiftychocolateMainstresspatternsinEnglishCome What |-TryWriteit-IthinkIm-|-HesusedtoIveheardof|-WherehaveyouMeetmeI want to meet him.We ought to give an a

38、nswer.She looks a little pale to me.-|-|-HecameonaWheneveryoucan,youmustvisitSyntactic structure of a sentence.Phrases of a parenthetical nature are often The smallest domain of application of pitch is syllable. When the vocal cords are loosely closed, the air form the lungs will set them in vibrati

39、on. Different rates of vibration produce different frequencies and different pitches. Pitch is the rise and fall of voice in producing an utterance .Tone In some languages (mainly found in South-East Asia and Africa), the tone carried by a word determines the meaning of that word (i.e. lexical tone)

40、. Thus, tone languages use tonal contrasts to distinguish word meanings or grammatical categories (such as tense). Examples of tone languages include Mandarin Chinese, Vietnamese, or the African Bantu languages, in which tone patterns serve to express lexical distinctions, i.e. pitch variation affec

41、ts the meaning of a word(媽，麻，馬，罵). This means that one sequence of sounds can have different meanings depending on the tone pattern with which it is produced, i.e. whether it is produced at a continuous high level, a rising or a falling level.Whenpitchandstressaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword

42、,theyare collectively known as intonation.InEnglish,threeintonationsarefrequentlyused:thefallingtone,therisingtone, and the fall-rise tone.GrammaticalfunctionsofThe intonation indicates different sentence types by pitch direction. The same sequence of words saidwith a falling intonation is usuallyin

43、terpreted as a statement, while witha rising intonation a question. In tag questions, one asks for confirmation with a falling tone, and for information with a rising tone.It indicates connotative meanings. The sentence I cant eat anything equals I can eat nothingwhensaidwithafallingtoneonanything,butIcanonlyeatsomeparticular things when said with a fall-rise tone on anything.It imposes different structure on the sentence by dividing it into different intonation units. John didnt come because of Mary said within one intonation unit means John came, but it had nothing to do with Mary. If