英語學(xué)習(xí)新編簡(jiǎn)明英語語言學(xué)教程筆記必備

1、棄我去者，昨日之日不可留亂我心者，今日之日多煩憂ChapteroneIntroduction一、定義1. 語言學(xué)LinguisticsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyofIanguage.2. 普通語言學(xué)GeneralLinguisticsThestudyofIanguageasawholeisoftencalledGenerallinguistics.3. 語言IanguageLanguageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.語言是人類用來交際的

2、任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。4. 識(shí)別特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.語言識(shí)別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多產(chǎn)性Duality雙重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化傳遞(1)arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsa

3、ndsounds.thearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressionsProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefer

4、tocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.(5)CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiarto

5、theirspecies.5. 語言能力CompetenceCompetenceistheidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.6. 語言運(yùn)用performancePerformanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.語言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)7. 歷時(shí)語言學(xué)DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistor

6、icalstudy,whichstudiesthehistoricaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.8. 共時(shí)語言學(xué)SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9. 語言langueTheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofaspeechcommunity.10. 言語paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse.11. 規(guī)定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrul

7、esfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12. 描述性DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse.二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)isnotanisolatedphenomenon,itsasocialactivitycarriedoutinacertainsocialenvironmentbyhumanbeings.語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一定的社會(huì)環(huán)境下進(jìn)行的一種社會(huì)活動(dòng)。2. 幾種觀點(diǎn)和現(xiàn)象

8、的提出者：瑞士語言學(xué)家SaussureSaussure:Langue和parole的區(qū)別linguist美國(guó)語言學(xué)家in1950針對(duì)Saussureslangue&parole提出Competence和performance曾經(jīng)對(duì)語言概念下過定義的語言學(xué)家Sapir-languageisapurelyhumanandnon-instinctivemethodofcommunicationideas,emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols.Halllanguageistheinstitutionwherebyhumanscomm

9、unicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral-auditoryarbitrarysymbols.Chomsky-fromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetofsentences,eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements.LinguistCharlesHockett美國(guó)語言學(xué)家CharlesHockett提出了語言的識(shí)別特征designfeatureswordlanguageprecededbythezero-arti

10、cle,itimpliesthatlinguisticsstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage.Language詞前不加冠詞說明語言學(xué)家不只研究一種特定的語言。ordertodiscoverthenatureoftheunderlyinglanguagesystem,whatthelinguistshastodofirstiftostudylanguagefacts.isacomplicatedentitywithmultiplelayersandfacts,soitshardlypossibleforthelinguisticstodealwithitallatonc

11、e.判斷題drewtheattentionofthelinguistswerethesoundsusedinlanguages.最先引起語言學(xué)家注意的是語言的發(fā)音。三、問答題aremajorbranchesoflinguisticswhatdoeseachstudyPhoneticsitsdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,itsconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworldslanguages.Phonology-thestudyofsoundssystemstheinventoryofdisti

12、nctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology-Itsabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntaxitsasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics-Itssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.

13、Pragmatics-thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguisticsthestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics-thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics-theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.dowesaylanguageisarbitraryLangu

14、ageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,itsonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnat

15、erelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethearbitrarinessoflanguageisarosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.3. whatmakesmodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammarModernlinguisticsisdescriptive,itsinvestigationsarebasedonauthenticandmainlyspokenlanguagedate.現(xiàn)代語言high學(xué)是描述性的，其研究

16、以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎(chǔ)。traditionalgrammarisprescriptive.itisbasedonwrittenlanguage.傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究高級(jí)書面語。modernlinguisticsmainlysynchronicordiachronicwhyModernlinguisticsismainlysynchronic,focusingonthepresent-daylanguage.unlessthevariousstatesofalanguagearesuccessfullystudied,itwillnotbepossibletodescrib

17、elanguagefromadiachronicpointofview.現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)主要是共時(shí)性的，重點(diǎn)研究現(xiàn)代語言。除非對(duì)語言的各種狀態(tài)都進(jìn)行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時(shí)性角度對(duì)語言進(jìn)行描述。enjoyspriorityinmodernlinguistics,speechorwritingsSpeechenjoysforthefollowingreasons:Speechprecedeswritingintermsofevolution.(2)Alargeamountofcommunicationiscarriedoutinspeechthaninwriting.speechistheformi

18、nwhichinfantsacquiretheirnativelanguage.isSaussuresdistinctionbetweenlangueandparolesimilartoChomskysBothSaussureandChomskymakethedistinctionbetweentheabstractlanguagesystemandtheactualuseoflanguage.theirpurposeistosingleoutthelanguagesystemforseriousstudyTwolinguistsideadifferinthatSaussuretookasoc

19、iologicalviewoflanguage,Chomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofview,competenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.distinctionbetweenlangueandparolelangueisabstract,relativelystableparoleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.1/Whatislinguistics什么是語言學(xué)Linguisticsisgenera

20、llydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.2/Thescopeoflinguistics語言學(xué)的研究范疇Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.（普通語言學(xué)）Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（語音學(xué)）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtoge

21、therandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系學(xué)）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形態(tài)學(xué)）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax（句法學(xué)）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（語義學(xué)）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmati

22、cs.（語用學(xué)）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.社會(huì)語言學(xué)）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理語言學(xué)）Thestudyofapplications（astherecoveryofspeechability）isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（應(yīng)用語言學(xué)）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsrefer

23、stotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人類語言學(xué)）neurologicallinguistics,（神經(jīng)語言學(xué)）mathematicallinguistics,（數(shù)字語言學(xué)）andcomputationallinguistics.（計(jì)算機(jī)語言學(xué)）3/Someimporta

24、ntdistinctionsinlinguistics語言學(xué)研究中的幾對(duì)基本概念Prescriptiveanddescriptive規(guī)定與描寫Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditiona

25、lgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.Synchronicanddiachronic共時(shí)和歷時(shí)Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthrou

26、ghtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.Speechandwriting口頭語與書面語Speechandwritingarethetwomajormediaofcommunication.Modernlinguisticsregardsthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,butnotthewrittenform.Reasonsare:1.Speechprecedeswriting;2.Therearestillmanylanguagesthathaveo

27、nlythespokenform;3.Intermsoffunction,thespokenlanguageisusedforawiderrangeofpurposesthanthewritten,andcarriesalargerloadofcommunicationthanthewritten.Langueandparole語言和言語TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemshar

28、edbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubj

29、ectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance語言能力和語言運(yùn)用ProposedbyAmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspec

30、ifythelanguagerules.ChapterTwoPhonology一、定義1. 寬式音標(biāo)BroadtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithlettersymbolsonly.2. 窄式音標(biāo)NarrowtranscriptionThetranscriptionofspeechsoundwithletterssymbolsandthediacritics.3. 清音VoicelessWhenthevocalcordsaredrawnwideapart,lettingairgothroughwithoutcausingvibratio

31、n,thesoundsproducedinsuchaconditionarecalledvoicelesssounds.4. 濁音VoicingSoundsproducedwhilethevocalcordsarevibratingarecalledvoicedsounds.5. 元音VowelThesoundsintheproductionofwhichnoarticulatorscomeveryclosetogetherandtheairstreampassesthroughthevocaltractwithoutobstructionarecalledvowels.6. 輔音Conson

32、antsThesoundsintheproductionofwhichthereisanobstructionoftheairstreamatsomepointofthevocaltractarecalledconsonants.7. 音位PhonemeThebasicunitinphonology,itsacollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.8. 音位變體AllophonesDifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentenvironmentsarecalledtheallophonesoft

33、hatphoneme.9. 音素phoneAphoneticunitorsegment.itdoesnotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,itsaspeechsoundweusewhenspeakingalanguage.10. 最小對(duì)立對(duì)MinimalpairWhentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaminimalpair.11. 超切分特征Supr

34、asegmentalThephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.themainsuprasegmentalfeaturesincludestress,intonationandtone.12. 互補(bǔ)分布complementarydistributionP35Twoallophonesofthesamephonemearesaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.13. 語言的語音媒介PhonicmediumoflanguageThelimi

35、tedrangeofsoundswhicharemeaningfulinhumancommunicationandareofinteresttolinguisticstudiesarethephonicmediumoflanguage.在人類交際中有著一定意義、對(duì)語言學(xué)研究來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。14. 爆破音stopsWhenaobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,thespeechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainisc

36、alledastoporaplosive.theyarebptdkg二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)resultingfromcarefulinvestigationsshowthattherehavemorebasicthanbeenover5,000languagesintheworld,abouttwothirdsofwhichhavenothadwrittenform.2.ofthetwomediaoflanguage,speechiswriting.組成Articulatoryphonetics發(fā)音語音學(xué)longestestablished,mostlydevelopedAuditoryphonetics

37、聽覺語音學(xué)Acousticphonetics聲學(xué)語音學(xué)/OrgansofSpeechPharyngealcavity-咽腔Oral.口腔greatestsourceofmodificationofairstreamfoundhereNasal-鼻腔tongueisthemostflexible,responsibleformorevarietiesofarticulationthananyother,theextremebackofthetonguecanberaisedtowardstheuvulaandaspeechsoundcanbethusproducedasisusedinArabi

38、candFrench.betweenthebackofthetongueandthevelararearesultsinthepronunciationofkandg,thenarrowingofspacebetweenthehardpalateandthefrontofthetongueleadstothesoundj;theobstructioncreatedbetweenthetipofthetongueandthealveolarridgeresultsinthesoundstandd.consonants:m/n/n9.APhoneisaphoneticunitorsegment.r

39、ules例子Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword,thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules:thefirstphonememustbe/s/thesecondphonememustbe/p/or/t/or/k/thethirdphonememustbe/I/or/r/or/whasfourbasictypesofintonation:Fallingtone;Risingtone;FaII-risetone;Rise-faIItone三、問答題arethethre

40、ebranchesofphoneticshowdotheycontributetothestudyofspeechsoundArticulatorydescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.Auditory-studiesthephysicalpropertiesofspeechsounds,reachestheimportantconclusionthatphoneticidentityisonlyatheoreticalideal.Acoustic-studiesthephysica

41、lpropertiesofspeechsounds,thewaysoundtravelfromthespeakertothehearer.發(fā)音語音學(xué)描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。聽覺語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，得出了重要結(jié)論，即語音同一只是理論上的理想。聲學(xué)語音學(xué)研究語音的物理性質(zhì)，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。aretheEnglishconsonantsclassifiedByplaceofarticulationandBymannerofarticulationdophoneticsandphonologydifferintheirfocusofst

42、udywhodoyouthinkwillbemoreinterestedinthedifferentbetweensayiandi,pandph,aphoneticianoraphilologistwhy語音學(xué)和音位學(xué)的研究中心有何不同語音學(xué)家和音位學(xué)家哪一個(gè)更關(guān)心清晰音的區(qū)別為什么Phoneticsdescriptionofallspeechsoundsandtheirfinddifferences.Phonologydescriptionofsoundsystemsofparticularlanguagesandhowsoundsfunctiontodistinguishmeaning.A

43、phoneticianwouldbemoreinterestedinsuchdifferencescossuchdifferenceswillnotcosdifferencesinmeaning.saphonehowisitdifferentfromaphonemehowareallophonesrelatedtoaphonemePhoneaspeechsound,aphoneticunit.Phoneme-acollectionofabstractsoundfeatures,aphonologicalunit.Allophones-actualrealizationofaphonemeind

44、ifferentphoneticcontexts.為什么區(qū)分最小對(duì)立組isaminimalpairandaminimalsetwhyisitimportanttoidentifytheminimalsetinalanguage在一種語言中非常重要Minimalpairtwosoundcombinationsidenticalineverywayexceptinonesoundelementthatoccursinthesameposition.除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個(gè)語音成分不同外,其他部分都一樣的兩個(gè)語音組合.Minimalsetagroupofsoundcombinationswithth

45、eabovefeature.一組具有上述特征的語音組合.Byidentifyingtheminimalpairortheminimalsetofalanguage,aphilologistcanidentifyitsphonemes.通過分析一種語言的最小對(duì)立對(duì)或最小對(duì)立組,音位學(xué)家能辨別出它的音位.withexampleshowbroadtranscriptionandnarrowonetranscriptiondifferBroadtranscriptiononelettersymbolforonesound.Narrowtranscriptiondiacriticsareaddedtot

46、heone-lettersymbolstoshowthefinerdifferencesbetweensounds.thesequentialrule,theassimilationruleandthedeletionrule.有序規(guī)則SequentialrulesRulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage.同化規(guī)則AssimilationrulesTheassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherbycopyingafeatureofasequentialphoneme,th

47、usmakingthetwophonessimilar.省略規(guī)則DeletionruleItsaphonologicalrulewhichtellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitsorthographicallyrepresented.ChapterThreeMorphology、定義1. 詞素MorphemeThebasicunitinthestudyofmorphologyandthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.2. 自由詞素FreeMorphemeFreemorphemesareindependentunits

48、ofmeaningandcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselves.3. 黏著詞素BoundmorphemesBoundmorphemesarethesemorphemesthatcanotbeusedbythemselves,mustbecombinedwithothermorphemestoformwordsthatcanbeusedindependently.4. 詞根RootRootisthebaseformofawordwhichcannotbefurtheranalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.5. 詞綴AffixThecollec

49、tivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.6. 曲折詞綴inflectionalaffixesThemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,tense,degreeandcase.7. 派生詞綴DerivationalaffixesThemanifestationofrelationbetweenstemsandaffixesthroughthead

50、ditionofderivationalaffixes.8. 詞干StemAstemistheexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.astemcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.9. 形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則MorphologicalrulesTheyarerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.10. 前綴PrefixPrefixesmodifythemeaningofthestem,butu

51、suallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,exceptionsaretheprefixesbe-anden(m)-11. 后綴SuffixSuffixesareaddedtotheendofstems,theymodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordandinmanycaseschangeitspartofspeech.usingthemorphologicalrules,wemustguardagainstOver-generalization.二、知識(shí)點(diǎn)InflectionalmorphologyDeriv

52、ationalmorphologyFreemorphemesMorphemesRootBoundmorphemesInflectionalaffixesAffixesPrefixDerivationalaffixeswordsmaybesaidtocontainarootmorpheme.Suffixfeatures:orthographically,acompoundcanbewrittenasoneword,twoseparatewordswithorwithoutahypheninbetween.Syntactically,thepartofspeechofacompoundisdete

53、rminedbythelastelement.semantically,themeaningofacompoundisidiomatic,notcalculablefromthemeaningsofallitscomponentChapterFourSyntax一、定義1. 句子sentenceAstructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.2. 語言運(yùn)用LinguisticcompetenceThesystemofinternali

54、zedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeaker.3. 謂語PredicateThepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledpredicate.4. 定式子句FiniteClauseAclausethattakesasubjectandafiniteverb,andatthesametimestandsstructurallyalone.5. 從屬子句EmbeddedClause(EC

55、)Inacompletesentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledanEC.6. 主要子句MatrixClauseInacomplexedsentence,theclauseintowhichitisembeddediscalledamatrixclause.7. 層次結(jié)構(gòu)HierarchicalstructureThesentencestructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituentsandshowsthesyntacticcategoriesofeachstructu

56、ralconstituent,suchasNPandVP.8. 語法關(guān)系GrammaticalrelationsThestructuralandlogicalfunctionalrelationsbetweeneverynounphraseandsentence.9. 句法類型SyntacticcategoryAwordorphrasethatperformsaparticulargrammaticalfunctionsuchasthesubjectorobject.10. 表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationaftertheoperat

57、ionofnecessarysyntacticmovement.11. 深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structureAlevelofsyntacticrepresentationbeforetheoperationofnecessarysyntacticmovement.12. 普遍語法GeneralgrammarAsystemoflinguisticknowledgewhichconsistsofsomegeneralprinciplesandparametersaboutnaturelanguage.13. 移動(dòng)a規(guī)則MoveaAgeneralmovementruleaccountingforthesyntacticbehaviorofanyconstituentmovement.14. 句法移位SyntacticmovementSyntacticmovementoccurswhenaconstituentmo