HND微觀經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)

1、Contents1.0Introductionp32.0Bodyp32.1 MarketFailurep32.2 PublicGoodsp32.3 MeritGoodsp32.4 Externalitiesp32.5 ImperfectCompetionp42.6 Climatepolicyp52.6.1 Climateplanp52.6.21 nstrumentsp52.6.22 esultp53.0Conclusionp64.0Referencep65.0Appendixp71.0IntroductionThisreportaimistoexplainmarketfailureandthe

2、roleofgovernmentinpublicgoods,meritgoods,externalitiesandimperfectcompetition.ItalsoanalysisthepolicyaboutclimateinUK.2.1 Maintainbody2.2 MarketfailureIneconomics,marketfailureisasituationinwhichtheallocationofgoodsandservicesbyafreemarketisnotefficient.Marketfailurescanbeviewedasscenarioswhereindiv

3、iduals'pursuitofpureself-interestleadstoresultsthatarenotefficient一thatcanbeimproveduponfromthesocietalpointofview.2.3 PublicgoodsThefirstcategoryisapurepublicgood,isbothnon-exclusiveandnon-competitive;characteristicsofthesecondcategoryofpublicgoodsisanon-competitiveontheconsumer,butitcaneasilyb

4、edonelessexclusive,somescholarssucharticlesimagecalledclubgoods;thethirdcategoryofpublicgoodsandclubgoodsisjusttheopposite,namelycompetitiveintheconsumer,butitcannoteffectivelydischargehim,somescholarssuchitemsasasharedresourceorcommon-poolresourceitems.Butforthosewithhigherimplementationcostsorsmal

5、lerscaleofdemandexclusivitycrowdedpublicgoods,supplyvendorsisdifficulttoobtainanormalprofit,themarketcannoteffectivelysupply.Marketmechanismsmanifestedintheeffectivesupplyofpublicgoodsincompetence,governmentinterventionintheeconomybutalsotoprovideanimportantbasis.2.4 MeritGoodsMeritGoodsmeansgoodfor

6、consumersbutbecauseofconsumerignoranceandlackofconsumergoodsForexample,Medicaltreatment.Governmentmustcontrolit.Ifthereisaprivatecharge,thepricewillchangeaspersonalthoughts.Oncebecoming學(xué)習(xí)資料theformationofprivatemonopolies,itwilldefinitelyleadtoserioussocialproblems.Governmentbecomeasocial'ssecuri

7、ty.2.5 ExternalitiesIneconomics,anexternalityisthecostorbenefitthataffectsapartywhodidnotchoosetoincurthatcostorbenefit.Ifthereareexternalbenefits,suchasinpublicsafety,lessofthegoodmaybeproducedthanwouldbethecaseiftheproducerweretoreceivepaymentfortheexternalbenefitstoothers.Forthepurposeofthesestat

8、ements,overallcostandbenefittosocietyisdefinedasthesumoftheimputedmonetaryvalueofbenefitsandcoststoallpartiesinvolved.Papermillscanbeestimatedearningsaccordingtothemarketpriceofpaper,youcanestimatecostsbasedonelementsofthemarketprice.Aslongasthebenefitsoutweighthecosts,willincreasetheproductionofpap

9、er.Paperproductionwillpollutewater'quality,increasedsocialcostsofproduction.However,thereisnopureairmarket,paperdealerwillnotbeforcedtobearthecostofairqualityandthustheprofitsofmanufacturerswillnotincludethiscostestimate.Ifgovernmentdon'interveneit,externaleffectswillneverbesolved.2.6 Imperf

10、ectCompetition.Ineconomictheory,imperfectcompetitionisatypeofmarketstructureshowingsomebutnotallfeaturesofcompetitivemarkets.Idealperfectlycompetitivemarketeconomy,basedonthenormalorderofmarketeconomyalsofullycompetitiveasaprecondition.Butitisveryhardtocometrue.Ontheimperfectlycompetitivemarket,manu

11、facturershavealotofmarketpower,theycaninfluenceandevendeterminethemarketprice.Undernormalcircumstances,themonopolywillgivemanufacturerstobringexcesseconomicprofit.Intheabsenceofsufficientcompetitionexistsbutexcesseconomicprofit,themonopolistoftenlacktheincentivestoinnovate,thereisnoinitiativetoimpro

12、veproductionefficiency,whichgivesthedevelopmentofproductiveforceshasbroughtsignificantobstacle.Sogovernmentmustintervene.GovernmentbecomeaMacro-controlperson.2.7 ClimatepolicyToencouragecompaniestofindcost-effectiveemissionreductionandcopingmeasures,theBritishgovernmenthastakenmeasurestoclimatechang

13、elevyandimplementanemissionstradingsystemandsoon,andfundedtheestablishmentofCarbonTrusttoproviderelevantadviceandservicesforenterprisesandthepublic.2.7.1 ClimateChangePlanAgainstthegreenhouseeffect,inNovember2000theBritishissueda"ClimateChangePlan",statedtoreachalltypesofindustry"Kyot

14、oProtocol"otheremissionreductiontargets,isscheduledtostartfromApril2001climatechangelevy.ItisbenefittoreducetheemissionofGHG2.7.2 InstrumentBritainwastheworld'sfirstcountrytointroducealong-termlegislativeframeworktotackleclimatechange,"ClimateChangeBill"inNovember2007attheCongress

15、started,March31,2008byHouseofLords,currentlyintheHouseofCommonsdiscussion,thegoalistofinishinthefallof2008legislativeprogram,toattainformalapproval.2.7.3 ResultAccordingtothelatestannualreportoftheJuly17,2008release,the2007UKcarbondioxideemissionPutthetotalwas543.7milliontons,comparedtoemissionsin20

16、06,reducingthe2%;relativereduction13%in1990;in2010isexpectedtobeabletoachievereductionof15.5%,whichisthefirsttimein2007thantheyearthereportisexpectedtobedonetoreduceemissions18%itseemsthatthesituationisnotoptimistic,butitdoesgetimprovementwithsomeextent.學(xué)習(xí)資料3.0ConclusionMaineconomicgoalsofthegovernm

17、entaretoadjustthemarket,makethemarketgoodandfastdeveloped.Marketfailurecausedbyaseriesofeconomicproblems,thegovernmentmustlaunchedmoreeffectivepoliciestopreventtheemergenceofmarketfailure.PerfectclimatepolicywillhelptoimproveclimaticconditionsEUasagroupofcountries,theemissionreductiontargetsunderthe

18、"KyotoProtocol"commitmentistothefirstcommitmentperiod(2008-2012)in1990onthebasisofemissions8%.TheEUinturntheemissionreductiontargetsinternallysecondarydecomposition,makeadjustmentsbasedoncountry-specificcircumstances.Lowlevelofdevelopmentinsomecountries,likeSpain,Portugal,etc.,toallowtheir

19、obligationslightly,whiletheultraoutofthereductionswithintheEUaccountedformainlybytheleadershipofthetwogreatpowers-BritainandGermany-tobear.Britainassumedemissionreductionobligationsfor12.5%,whiledomesticemissionreductiontargetsestablishedbytheUKhigherplanin2010basedonemissionsin1990by20%to60%by2050.

20、Inordertocompletethereductiontargets,theBritishestablishedarelativelycompletesystemofdomesticclimatepolicy.UKDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairsasthemaindepartmentresponsibleforclimatepolicy,werelaunchednationalprogramstoaddressclimatechangein2000andtwicein2006,andsince2007,tosubmitannualre

21、portstoassessandreportannuallytoCongressonClimateChangepolicyimplementationandeffectiveness.AccordingtothelatestannualreportoftheJuly17,2008release,thetotalcarbondioxideemissionsfromtheUnitedKingdomin2007was543.7milliontons,comparedtoemissionsin2006,reducingthe2%;relativereduction13%in1990;expected2

22、01015.5%reductioncandothisthefirsttimein2007thantheannualreportisexpectedtobedonetoreduceemissions18%,itseemsthatthesituationisnotoptimistic.Although20percentofemissionsfromdomesticobjectivesthereisagap,butthecompletionoftheamountstillexceededitsstatutoryobligations,visibleemissionsproblemonBritisha

23、ttitudesaremorepositive.TheGuardian2007-03-27Forthegreenhouseeffect,inNovember2000theBritishissueda"ClimateChangePlan",statedtoreachalltypesofindustry,"KyotoProtocol"otheremissionreductiontargets,isscheduledtostartfromApril2001climatechangelevytax.AsoftheendofMarch2001,theBritish

24、government(includingtheenvironment,transportandlocalgovernment)and40industrygroupssigneda"climatechangelevyagreement"(ClimlateChangeAgreement).Agreement,theindustrymaychoosetocapemissionsmannerormodeofproductionofindividualunitssetprotocoltargets,thegovernmentthensetatargettoreducetheindus

25、tryonthebasisof20%to80%oftheclimatechangelevy.Ifnoagreementisreachedafter2yearsreductiontargetsare,youcannotcontinuetoenjoytaxpreferentialtreatment.Facedwithdiverseandcomplicatedenvironmentalissues,theBritishgovernmentandtheindustryasearlyas1972begantoadoptenvironmentalagreementsasameansofenvironmen

26、talpolicy.Atfirst,theBritishgovernmentinwastetreatmentcountermeasurehaswarnedthatifthevoluntaryprogramwasunabletoreachasatisfactoryestablishedgoals,theActwilltakecontrol.Inrecentyears,theUnitedKingdomwhenmodifyingtheprovisionsoftheFinanceAct,fromApril2001tolevytaxestoclimatechangeandtotakethegovernm

27、entandtheenergyconsumptionofindustrialenvironmentalagreementssignedwaystoimproveenergyefficiencyandreduceemissionsbyuptogivebusinessesmitigate80%discountrates.Companiesareobligedtouseenergyinformation,reportsproductionnumberstotheMinistryofEnvironment.MinistryofEnvironmentcanappointanindependentsupe

28、rvisor(usuallynon-governmentalorganizations)incheck,ifthegoalistocompletetheidentificationcardissuedbythetaxauthoritieswiththeidentificationcertificateautomaticallyconcessions.WhiletheaboveenterpriseenvironmentalagreementssignedbetweentheGovernmentandthetaxesassociatedwiththecontent,isalegalagreemen

29、t,butthegovernmentandtheindustryneverwillbeasvoluntaryagreements,學(xué)習(xí)資料as"agentlemanagreement"onthenatureofthenon-bindinglawforce.DefinitionofmarketfailureMarketfailureshavenegativeeffectsontheeconomybecauseanoptimalallocationofresourcesisnotattained.Inotherwords,thesocialcostsofproducingthegoodorservice(alloftheopportunitycostsoftheinputresourcesusedinitscreation)arenotminimized,andthisresultsinawasteofsomeresources.Take,forexample,thecommonargumentagainstminimumwagelaws.Minimumwagelawssetwagesabovethegoingmarket-clearingwageinanattem