Unit 6 Food新編大學(xué)英語第二版文翻譯

1、Unit 6 FoodFood and Culture 1 We all have ideas about what kinds of foods are good to eat. We also have ideas about what kinds of foods are bad to eat. As a result, people from one culture often think the foods that people from another culture eat are disgusting or nauseating. When the fam

2、ous boxer Muhammad Ali visited Africa, for example, one member of his group became quite sick when he saw someone pick up a butterfly and eat it. Many people would find it disgusting to eat rats, but there are forty-two different cultures whose people regard rats as appropriate food. 2 Some people i

3、n Africa think African termites make a delicious meal. Many other people would probably be sick if they had to eat termites, but one hundred grams of termites contain more than twice as many calories and almost twice as much protein as one hundred grams of cooked hamburger. 3 However, food likes and

4、 dislikes do not always seem related to nutrition. For example, broccoli is first on a list of the most nutritious common vegetables, but it is twenty-first on a list of vegetables that Americans like most to eat. Tomatoes are sixteenth on the list of most nutritious vegetables, but they are first o

5、n the list of vegetables that Americans like most to eat. 4 But dislike is not the only reason why some cultures will not eat a certain food. In some cultures, certain foods are taboo. Taboo is a word from the language of the Fiji Islands that is used to describe something that is forbidden. Some fo

6、ods are taboo in certain religions, but there are also other food taboos that are not connected to a religion. We do not usually think about why certain things are taboo in our culture. We may not even know why they are taboo. Anthropologists try to discover the hidden reasons for taboos. For exampl

7、e, the sacred cows of India are well known. Cows can go wherever they want to in the streets of India, and they can eat anything they want from the supplies of the foodsellers on the street. As a result, the cows are a problem. However, no one in India will kill them or eat them. It is taboo to do s

8、o. This custom seems strange to other people, but anthropologists believe that there are reasons for it. First, cows are valuable because the farmers need them to help plow their fields. Second, cow manure is used as a fertilizer on the fields. In India, many farmers cannot afford to spend money on

9、fertilizer. Third, the cow manure can be dried and burned to make cooking fires. Therefore, farmers that kill their cows for meat soon find that they cannot plow or fertilize their fields or make a cooking fire. 5 Another example is that Americans do not eat dogs, although people from some other cul

10、tures regard them as good food. In the United States, dogs are very important to people as pets. They are usually regarded as part of the family, almost like a child in some cases. In addition, dogs have value as protection against criminals. Thieves will not usually enter a house where there is a d

11、og because the dog will bark and possibly attack a stranger who is trying to get into a house. Apparently, the dog's place in society as a companion and as protection against criminals makes the dog taboo as food. 6 The taboo against eating pork occurs in more than one culture. There is some evi

12、dence that some ancient Egyptians did not eat pork. The ancient Israelites also regarded pork as taboo. One explanation for the pig-eating taboo is that pork that is not cooked sufficiently may spread a disease called trichinosis. However, most people no longer think that this is a good explanation

13、for the pork taboo. Another explanation is that the Israelites were nomadsthey were always moving from place to place. People have to stay in one place to raise pigs. The Israelites did not want to stay in one place because they did not want to change their culture. As a result, they did not eat pig

14、s. 7 Anthropologists believe that most food likes and dislikes are a result of the ways of life of different people. Some people live in areas where there are both large animals and many insects. It is difficult for these people to kill large animals, and it requires a lot of energy. It is easier fo

15、r them to use insects for food because it is not difficult to catch insects and it does not require a lot of energy. Nomadic people who move around will not want to keep pigs for food. People will not eat pets such as dogs. Americans eat a lot of beef because there is plenty of land for raising catt

16、le and their meat can be shipped cheaply for long distances by railroads.飲食與文化1 對于什么樣的食物好吃，我們都有自己的主見。對于什么樣的食物不好吃，我們也有自己的看法。因此，某種文化背景的人常常會覺得另一種文化背景的人吃的食物難以忍受或者令人作嘔。比如，在著名的拳擊手穆罕默德·阿里訪問非洲時，團里的一名成員看到有人抓起一只蝴蝶就吃了下去時便惡心得想嘔吐。許多人會發(fā)覺吃老鼠肉令人惡心，但世界上有42種不同文化的人認為鼠肉是合適的食物。2 在非洲有些人認為非洲白蟻可以做成美餐。對于許多其他人來說，如果非吃（白蟻

17、）不可的話，他們很可能會嘔吐。但是，如果拿100克的白蟻和100克制作好的漢堡包相比，前者所含的熱量是后者的兩倍多，其所含的蛋白質(zhì)也幾乎是后者的兩倍。3 不過，對食物的好惡似乎并不一定與營養(yǎng)有關(guān)。例如，花椰菜在營養(yǎng)最豐富的常見蔬菜中排名第一，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中僅名列第二十一位。西紅柿在營養(yǎng)最豐富的蔬菜中排名十六，但它在美國人最喜歡的蔬菜中卻名列榜首。4 但不喜歡并不是某些文化（中人們）不吃某種食物的唯一原因。在有些文化中，有些食物是禁忌?！敖伞币辉~來源于斐濟群島的語言, 用來表示禁止做的事。有些食物在某些宗教中被列為禁忌，但也有一些飲食禁忌與宗教無關(guān)。通常我們不去考慮為什么在我們的文

18、化中有些東西是禁忌。我們也許甚至不知道它們?yōu)槭裁词墙伞Ｈ祟悓W(xué)家試圖發(fā)現(xiàn)禁忌背后隱藏的原因。例如，印度“圣?！睘槿藗兯熘Ｅ？梢栽谟《鹊拇蠼稚系教幾撸鼈兛梢猿越稚鲜称窋傊魉?yīng)的食物中任何它們想吃的東西。結(jié)果，牛就成了問題?？墒牵谟《葲]人會去殺?；虺耘Ｈ狻⑴；虺耘Ｈ馐墙伞＿@種習(xí)俗在其他人看起來似乎很奇怪，但人類學(xué)家相信這自有其原因。首先，牛是很寶貴的，因為農(nóng)民需要它們幫助犁地。其次，牛糞可作地里的肥料。在印度，許多農(nóng)民買不起肥料。還有，牛糞弄干后可用來燒火做飯。因此，殺牛食肉的農(nóng)民很快發(fā)現(xiàn)他們無法犁地，無法給莊稼施肥，或者無燃料做飯。5 再比如，美國人不吃狗肉, 盡管其他一些文化背景

19、的人視狗肉為佳肴。在美國，狗作為寵物對人們極為重要。通常它們被視為家庭的一部分，有時甚至還把狗當(dāng)成自己的孩子。此外，狗的價值還在于防范罪犯。盜賊一般不進入有狗的住宅，因為狗會吠叫，而且可能會襲擊試圖進入屋子的陌生人。顯而易見，狗在社會中作為伙伴及防范罪犯的衛(wèi)士的角色使吃狗肉成為禁忌。6 不止一種文化忌食豬肉。有跡象表明一些古埃及人不吃豬肉。古代以色列人也視豬肉為禁忌。對禁食豬肉的一種解釋是，未被煮透的豬肉可能會傳播一種疾病，叫旋毛蟲病。但大多數(shù)人不再認為這能很好地解釋禁食豬肉的原因。另一種解釋是以色列人原屬游牧民族他們總是居無定所。要養(yǎng)豬，人們就得在某地定居下來。從前以色列人不愿在一個地方定居

20、，因為他們不想改變自己的文化。正因如此，他們便不食豬肉。7 人類學(xué)家相信，對食物的好惡大多是不同人不同生活方式的結(jié)果。有些人生活在既有大型動物又有許多昆蟲的地區(qū)。他們殺死大型動物有困難，需要花很大的力氣。對他們來說，以昆蟲為食要容易些，因為捕捉昆蟲既不困難又不需花太大的力氣。四處流動、過游牧生活的人不愿意為吃肉而養(yǎng)豬。人們也不吃像狗那樣的寵物。美國人牛肉吃得很多，因為有大量的土地可用來養(yǎng)牛，而且牛肉可以通過鐵路以低廉的價格進行長途運輸。The MenuJim Heimann1 Food history tells us that in early restaurants the recitat

21、ion of the available food dishes became an increasingly time-consuming chore; therefore, written menus were developed to help guide diners in their eating choices. This written menu was commonly handwritten on a chalkboard or listed on a board that could be easily seen by the customers. Developments

22、 in printing finally led to a change and the larger restaurants' floor plans made a single handwritten menu impractical, so printed menus were introduced. 2 Delmonico's restaurant in New York City is often given credit for introducing the first printed menu in the United States in 1834. That

23、 menu, as well as others of the period, was simple in design and offered specific information. Special occasions led to a call for unique designs and eventually led to more highly decorated menus.3 For the most part, however, menu decoration followed the art movements of the time. The highly decorat

24、ed late 19th century menus, which were influenced by Victorian art, gave way to modern art in the 20th century. Developments with graphics and printing allowed distinctive menu cover art. 4 By the 1930s, the menu was seen as a part of the restaurant's plan to create a memorable meal. It could de

25、velop an appetite, tell a joke, explain a food item, create a mood, tell something of the history of the restaurant, and, above all, sell some food. Restaurant trade publications encouraged the use of the menu as part of the business strategy, and the National Restaurant Association promoted effecti

26、ve menu graphics in its annual competition of best menus in the nation. Its guidelines for judging included (1) originality, (2) legibility, (3) ease of handling, and (4) sales effectiveness. Restaurant Management magazine in its November 1935 issue stated that most restaurant owners considerably un

27、derestimated the importance of the appearance of the menu. The magazine went on to say that the menu really has two important functions: (1) to sell food, and (2) to repeat and emphasize the unique atmosphere of that restaurant. 5 In spite of the Depression of the 1930s, restaurants did well and men

28、u design became important. There were increasing numbers of many different types of restaurants during this decade, including cafeterias, drive-ins, and lunch counters in stores, as well as the traditional, more formal restaurants. Many of the restaurants developed themes in food, decoration and men

29、u styles. 6 Progress in printing, photography, and especially color photography opened up more opportunities for creative expression. During the Second World War food rationing often hurt the business of restaurants, but as soon as victory was achieved, eating out became very popular again.7 In spit

30、e of the risks of casual dining and fast-food restaurants, the mid-20th century provided many new opportunities for creative menu design. By the end of the 1960s, the increasingly popular coffee shops and restaurants that featured a singular item such as pizza, steak, or pancakes used new menu graph

31、ics. The 1970s brought a decline in eating out, but the 1980s, especially in homes where both parents were working, brought a big increase in the demand for many types of restaurants. Since then, menu design has provided the American public with a pleasing prelude to the dining experience. 8 Some po

32、pular historians are studying menus as a very special kind of documentation of America's love of eating out. For many generations of diners, taking a restaurant menu has been a way of preserving a memory or documenting a trip or a voyage. Many restaurants have provided customers with souvenir ve

33、rsions of their menus. The restaurant owners believe that this is a good way of advertising. Thus the menu now serves a new, but also important function.菜單1 飲食的歷史告訴我們：在早期的餐館里，背誦餐館供應(yīng)的菜肴成為越來越耗時的苦差事；因此，就產(chǎn)生了書面的菜單，以便指導(dǎo)用餐者挑選食物。這種菜單通常是手工寫在黑板上或列在一塊牌子上，黑板或牌子都要使顧客容易看見。印刷業(yè)的發(fā)展最終又引發(fā)了變革，同時又因為一些餐館層面的擴大使得一份手寫菜單滿足不了

34、實際需求，于是印刷菜單出現(xiàn)了。2 紐約市德爾莫尼柯餐館于1834年在美國首次推出印刷菜單，因而常常受到人們的贊揚。那種菜單，與同時期的其它菜單一樣，設(shè)計簡單，還提供了具體明確的信息。特殊的場合會引發(fā)人們對設(shè)計的獨特要求，最終產(chǎn)生了裝飾更精美的菜單。3 然而，多數(shù)情況下，菜單的裝飾風(fēng)格是隨著時代的藝術(shù)潮流而變化的。19世紀(jì)后期的菜單，受維多利亞時代藝術(shù)的影響，裝飾華麗，到了20世紀(jì)就被現(xiàn)代藝術(shù)所取代。平面造型藝術(shù)與印刷術(shù)的發(fā)展使得頗具特色的菜單封面藝術(shù)得以發(fā)展。4 到了20世紀(jì)30年代，餐館為打造令人難忘的美餐，把菜單看作是實施這種計劃的一部分。菜單可以引起食欲，講個笑話，介紹某食品，創(chuàng)造一種氛

35、圍，講述一點飯店的歷史，而且最重要的是，推銷菜肴。餐飲業(yè)的出版物則鼓勵把菜單作為經(jīng)營策略的一部分。全國餐飲協(xié)會每年舉辦全國最優(yōu)秀菜單競賽，屆時會有效地促進菜單平面造型藝術(shù)的發(fā)展。指導(dǎo)這種評比的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)包括（1）有創(chuàng)意（2）清晰易讀（3）使用方便（4）銷售效果好。1935年11月這一期的飯店管理雜志指出：大多數(shù)飯店老板都在很大程度上低估了菜單外觀的重要性。該雜志接著說道，菜單其實有兩種重要的功能：（1）推銷菜肴（2）反復(fù)突出飯店的獨特魅力。5 盡管30年代經(jīng)濟大蕭條，飯店卻生意良好，菜單設(shè)計也變得很重要。這十年內(nèi)，飯店種類不斷增多，除了傳統(tǒng)的較正規(guī)的飯店以外，還出現(xiàn)了如自助餐廳，免下車餐館，商店里的

36、小吃部等。許多飯店在菜肴、裝飾和菜單風(fēng)格上還發(fā)展了自己的主題格調(diào)。6 印刷，攝影，尤其是彩色攝影方面的進步為有創(chuàng)意的表現(xiàn)手法開拓了更多的機會。第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，食品的定量供應(yīng)常常影響飯店的生意，但是勝利后，出去吃飯就又馬上流行起來了。7 盡管人們對吃飯越來越隨意，同時快餐店大批涌現(xiàn)，但是20世紀(jì)中葉還是為有創(chuàng)意的菜單設(shè)計提供了很多新的機會。到60年代末期，越來越受歡迎的小吃部和以專賣比薩餅、牛排或薄煎餅等特色食品的飯館都采用了新的菜單平面設(shè)計藝術(shù)。70年代外出就餐的人減少了。但是到了80年代，特別是那些父母都上班工作的家庭，使各種各樣餐館的需求量大幅度增加。從那時起，菜單設(shè)計就為美國公眾就餐

37、提供了賞心悅目的前奏。8 一些通俗歷史學(xué)家正在研究菜單，他們把菜單當(dāng)作美國人外出吃飯喜愛程度的一種特殊文獻資料。對于好幾代的就餐者來說，帶走飯店的菜單一直是他們保留一段記憶或記錄某次旅行或航行的手段。許多飯店為顧客提供專門留念用的菜單。飯店老板們相信這是一種很好的廣告手段。因此，現(xiàn)在菜單又多了一種新的但也是很重要的功能。Cooking and Cuisines1 One thing that separates man from animals is man's preference for cooked food. The higher apes have been found to

38、 share with mankind the ability to communicate by sound and gesture, but no ape has ever cooked its food. We also like our food to appeal to our senses of taste and smell, and we like it to be attractive. Our senses are remarkably acute and discriminating, and all societies which have progressed bey

39、ond simple survival satisfy the human pleasure of good food. The great cuisines of the world have developed dishes which appeal both to the taste and to the eyecolor and texture are as important as flavor. 2 There are three acknowledged great national cuisines, French, Indian and Chinese. French coo

40、king is generally acknowledged to be supreme in Europe. French cuisine using butter, cheese and cream is typical of all great national cuisines: it combines simplicity with sophistication, uses the native resources of France, has great regional specialties and has become truly international.3 These

41、three major cuisines have distinguished themselves each by one major characteristic. French cooking with butter, cheese and cream is so typical of their cooking that if omitted the whole character of the cuisine would be destroyed. Also, wine in cooking is as instinctive to a French cook as the use

42、of soy sauce is to a Chinese cook. A second cuisineIndian cooking is distinguished by the use of spices. The third cuisine is defined by the use of rice as a stapleChina being the supreme example. Of course these three cuisines share their characteristics in one way or another. French cuisine can bo

43、ast some famous rice dishes. Some Indian regional cookery also makes use of butter and the dishes of Sichuan, in Chinese cuisine, are famous for their fiery spices. But the separation into three major cuisines does mark some kind of distinctive characteristic and the three major cuisines, each based

44、 on a different major characteristic, have persisted for a long time throughout human history.4 The borderlines between cuisine styles are clear and have changed less than either linguistic or racial boundaries. India's gift to the world is the use of spices to enhance the flavor of foods, and I

45、ndian cooking presents a dazzling array of regional variationsfrom the fiery hot curries of the south to the subtly spiced vegetarian dishes of the northern regions. Nothing rivals the color and flavor of Indian dishes, and the use of rice as a staple links Indian and Chinese cooking. Chinese cooks

46、teach us that texture must never be neglected. Long ago the Chinese brought to perfection the art of swift cooking at very high temperature in which vegetables retain their crispness and nutritional goodness too. Most of the preparation time is taken up by the cutting of vegetables and the chopping

47、of meat, not by the actual cooking process.5 The regional variety of Chinese dishes is bewildering to the foreigner. Spicy, bland, sour and sweet are all represented. No national cuisine uses the native plants and animals more than the Chinese. Every part of every edible vegetable or animal seems to

48、 have its use.6 There are three recent threats to keeping national cuisines:1) the revolution in world transportation and communication, 2) the increase in trade between nations, and 3) the changing role of women in society.7 Rapid and inexpensive transport and communication may threaten national cu

49、isines. Travelers from other countries want the kind of food they are used to at home. The second threat is caused by the flow of foods and food products from one country to another. Convenience foods destroy the charm of time-consuming cooking. An argument can be made for processed foods, and the g

50、reat benefits of freezing, freeze-drying and canning, but Western food technology is still a threat to national cuisines.8 Finally, the changing role of women influences national styles of cooking. The changes which have already taken place have had a profound effect on the family, and will continue

51、. Women have been the prime food preparers for thousands of years. If they have less time and less inclination to spend long hours in food preparation and cooking, this will influence the kind of dishes which a family eats. Now women can explore further than their own immediate locality and experien

52、ce, and gather ideas and recipes from other parts of the world, and incorporate these into their cooking. However, the threat to national cuisines remains perhaps even reinforced by the obvious benefits mentioned.9 To preserve distinctive national cuisines may have something to do with human behavior. What unites all great national cuisines, besides regional variety, ingenious use of available resources and an influence on international eating habits, is the