教師話語與輸入、交流

1、Teacher-talk, Input and Interaction 湛江師范學(xué)院附屬中學(xué) 詹 凡 524048Abstract: In the light of language acquisition research on interaction, this paper discusses the role of input and interaction in language acquisition. It argues for the effect of teacher-talk in an interactive model incorporating language acq

2、uisition. It presents the relationship between teacher-talk and input, transforming input- through intermediate stages of comprehended input, intake, and interaction-into L2 output.Key words: teacher-talk, input, interaction, outputIntroduction In current viewpoint, a good lesson is a lesson in whic

3、h the class do as much of the talking as possible. It may be considered that teacher-talk is bad because it gets in the way of students oral production. The less the teacher talks, and the more the students talk, the better. Some scholars prompt a “student-centered” mode which usually means some kin

4、d of group-work or pair-work in practice, or perhaps some kind of technique through which the teacher elicits' comment from the class. I, personally, have grown more and more suspicious of the assumption. I accept that some, perhaps many teachers talk too much, but I also believe that many teach

5、ers do not talk enough. I believe it is wrong to judge or assess teacher-talk only by reference to its quantity instead of its quality. Stages of language developmentApperceived input characterizes the awareness of new target language information that is not yet part of the learner's language re

6、pertoire. Comprehended input goes one step beyond recognition. It may be analyzed and has the potential of being assimilated through the process of intake. Psycholinguistic processing occurs at this stage where new information may be matched against existing stored knowledge. The next stage, integra

7、tion, involves storage of new information for later use, hypothesis formulation, and confirmation or reformulation of existing hypotheses. The final stage, output, is an “overt manifestation” of the acquisition process. The different stages may be influenced by a number of factors, such as saliency

8、and frequency, prior knowledge, and attention, as well as by affective factors. Comprehended input is different from intake. Input may be comprehended for the purpose of a conversational interaction. Output is the learner's overt manifestation of target language knowledge, and may be influenced

9、by factors such as confidence and strength of knowledge representation. According to the innateness hypothesis, children are innately equipped with abstract principles of Universal Grammar (UG) that enable them to internalize a complex grammar within a relatively short period, in spite of a degenera

10、te, disorganized, and insufficient input. Some language acquisition theories argue that children initially hypothesize the narrowest grammar compatible with the input and later expand the grammar to include additional information received. This ensures acquisition primarily through positive evidence

11、 since children are argued to be generally insensitive to negative evidence. The learner may benefit from: positive evidence, direct negative evidence, and indirect negative evidence. 1. Input and Language Acquisition The nature of input, and the function of input, may be influenced by the environme

12、nt in which the language is used. Speech directed at learners is characterized by simplification in all aspects of grammar (phonology, morphology, syntax, vocabulary, and discourse), and such input, though simplified, is generally grammatical. Ungrammatical input is, however, particularly produced b

13、y other low proficient learners, emphasizing on meaning. As the basis of language development, comprehended input acts more effectively than comprehensible input. Input is also presented within the framework of UG. Input could further be influenced by prior language acquisition and by affective fact

14、ors, among other things. The relationship between the learner and interlocutors (the teacher or other learners) may affect the attention of the learner. Specific aspects of the target language grammar may be comprehended easily or may be difficult to absorb in spite of repeated occurrence in the inp

15、ut. This may be the result of similarities and differences between the target language and the language previously acquired. 2. The Role of Interaction Conversational interaction in language learning/acquisition is considered the basis for the development of target language grammar. Miscommunication

16、 does occur sometimes, and negotiation (of form or meaning) is proposed as a key to avoiding miscommunication. In negotiated communication, interlocutors are aware of difficulty in communication and work toward avoiding a breakdown in communication. Successful negotiated communication may be affecte

17、d by factors including the nature of the task the learner is required to do; differences in status, age, and gender; and the personality traits of the interlocutors. Negotiation draws attention to erroneous or inappropriate forms, and also creates a situation in which learners receive feedback throu

18、gh direct and indirect instructions. Negotiation is thus described as “a facilitator of learning”.3. The role of outputOutput, the productive use of language, is presented as a necessary part of language development, complementing the comprehension aspect of language. It serves as a means of hypothe

19、sis-testing and feedback. Output may also enhance the fluency and automatcity of processing and could facilitate grammatically based processing, which is a key requirement for grammatical development. Quantity and quality of teacher-talkHow do teachers talk? What do they do while they are talking to

20、 their classes? When they talk, do they engage the attention of the class, present them with comprehensible input and also allow them to interrupt, comment; ask for clarification, and so on? Is the teacher checking on comprehension as she or he talks? If so, what kinds of comprehension-checks are th

21、ey using? Effective teaching relies on talking interactively with the class or individual students. Even though learners learn not only through “comprehensible input” but also their own output, a successful lesson' is not characterized by that students do all or even most of the talking. Some le

22、ssons may be successful if they are carefully structured in such a way that students do a good deal of the talking and at the same time get a lot of feedback, both formally and informally, from the teacher about their performance. But this is by no means true of all lessons.Teacher-talk as the most

23、important kind of inputThere is a lot of evidence that strongly suggests that all learners need input' and negotiated input'. Negotiated input' means a kind of conversation talk or formal teaching in which the teacher and the learner or learners together negotiate' both what they are

24、 talking about and the language that is used to talk about it. Learners negotiate' by showing whether they understand or not, by asking questions, by showing through body-language, facial expression and verbal means whether they are interested or not, whether they want to hear more, whether or n

25、ot they are getting tired or find the input too difficult. The teacher provides the input to the learners who are struggling with the target language. As the input-provider' at the time of negotiation, the teacher should be sensitive to these signals and adjust the input accordingly. That, at le

26、ast, is one way in which we as teachers can negotiate meaning' with our students to provide comprehended input.Silent periods and teacher-talkJames R. Nord was one of the first to point out and make us aware of the importance of silent periods'. He also pointed out, among other things, that

27、forcing students to speak in target language before they were ready to do was very counter-productive. It could even have the effect of de-motivating students. What should we do if we are teaching learners with low proficiency? Is it a good methodology if it insists that teachers should elicit'

28、information from the class, get them talking in pairs or groups, etc. There are students who struggle with the simplest elements of the language. Where are they supposed to get the English to express themselves? Is it possible for them to discover or invent the language they need through some kind o

29、f magic? It is the teacher who provides comprehended input. Ellis (1985) has suggested that eight conditions are central or especially favourable for language acquisition. 1. A high quantity of input directed at the learner 2. The learner's perceived need to communicate in the target language. 3

30、. Independent control of the propositional content by the learner4. Adherence to the here and now' principle, at least initially. 5. The performance of a range of speech acts by both native speaker/teacher and the learner (i.e. the learner needs the opportunity to listen to and to produce language used to perform different language functions). 6. Exposure to a high quantity of directives. 7. Exposure to a high quantity of extending utterances (e.g. requests for clarification and confirmation, paraphrases and expansions). 8. Opportunities