Book10_U3_語法

1、篇章結(jié)構(gòu)段落是文章的根本單位。一篇文章可以是一段，也可以寫成假設(shè)干個段落。段落寫作的好壞會直接影響文章意義的表達和思想的交流。一、 段落寫作的3+3原那么1.構(gòu)成段落的三個局部：主題句、擴展句、結(jié)論句主題句概括段落的中心思想，是段落開展的依據(jù)。擴展句支持主題句，通過給出一些例子、原因、事實、統(tǒng)計數(shù)字或引文等，對主題句進行解析說明，這是段落的主體局部。結(jié)論 句也叫總結(jié)句，通常是段落的最后一句，與主題句相照應(yīng)。2.衡量段落的三個標準：完整性、統(tǒng)一性、連貫性完整性要求運用具體的事實細節(jié)深入說明主題，使段落內(nèi)容完整充實。統(tǒng)一性要求段落中所有的論證細節(jié)都集中表達一個中心思想。連續(xù)性指段落中的每個句子在邏

2、輯上和結(jié)構(gòu)上相連貫，使整個段落到達符合邏輯的平衡開展。二、 寫好主題句主題句反映段落的中心思想，它常常位于段首或段末，有時也可置于段中。三、 段落的連貫段落的連續(xù)性要求文章段落中各句要前后銜接，條理清楚，使讀者易于理解。獲得段落連續(xù)性的方法有兩種：按邏輯順序組織內(nèi)容和使用連接手段。1.邏輯順序的連貫：英語的段落甚至整篇文章的內(nèi)容按六種邏輯順序排列，分別為時 間、空間、遞升、遞降、演繹和歸納。如：Every morning my nephew and I took a walk in the neighboring hills where we could enjoy the fresh air

3、 and sweet songs ofthe birds. In the afternoon, I mostly spent my time reading or writing, for I was shut in the house by the terrible heat. The eveningwas the only time we could go to swim together. I improved swimming during those two weeks and through physical exercise I becamestronger.按時間順序Give

4、students a chance to grow. Let them seek knowledge, but do not find it for them. Let them learn patience; do not forceit on them. Let them take their own time to grow; do not set rigid schedules. Experience cannot be taught; it must come slowlythrough person search.按歸幺內(nèi)法次 序2.常見的幾種連接手段：1利用代詞指代前面的名詞，起

5、到承上啟下的作用；2利用關(guān)鍵詞或短語的重復(fù)以到達銜接；3利用過渡連接詞來顯現(xiàn)文章內(nèi)容組織的邏輯性。As a human being, one can hardly do without a friend. We need friends to share our joy and sorrow; we consult with friendsif there are problems we cannot handle alone; we go to friends for help when we are in trouble; and we sometimes confide in ourfr

6、iends what secret we are reluctant to reveal to our family. In a sense, friends are often more important to us than relatives.上面段落使用了上述三種連接手段：1使用代詞one; 2重復(fù)關(guān)鍵詞語friends , we; 3使用過渡連接詞in a sense和and;幾個句子通過分號連接，流暢自然地支持了我們不能沒有朋友這一主題。四、 段落的開展在主題句確定了以后，下一步就是運用擴展句展開主題。常用的段落開展方法有：列舉法、舉例法、因果法、比擬對照法、分類法、綜合法等。1

7、.列舉法：是指先提出論點，然后列舉出一系列論據(jù)進行陳述或解析的方法。列舉法 常用的過渡連接詞語有:first, second, also, finally, one, another, still another, for one thing - for another, to beginwith, on one hand - on the other hand等。Music comes in many forms: most countries have a style of their own. Poland has its Polkas. Hungary has its czardas.

8、 Brailis famous for the boss nova. The U.S. is known for jazz, a completely original type of music that has gained world-wide popularity.2.舉例法：通過具體的事例擴展段落，闡述主題句中的主導思想。常用的過渡連接詞有:to illustrate, for example/instance, in particular, such as, like, furthermore, also, besides, in addition to等。Americans va

9、lue manual labor. They have great respect for craftsmanship. Many Americans prefer craft hobbies. For example,some build small boats in their leisure time. Others make new furniture or refinish antique furniture. Still others enjoy gardeningor painting. They make these things and they are proud of t

10、heir manual skill. In fact some people are really very handy.3.因果法：因果法根據(jù)事物發(fā)生的原因推理其結(jié)果，或根據(jù)結(jié)果分析原因。表示結(jié)果的常用過渡詞有:therefore, as a result, accordingly, consequently, for this reason, lead to等； 表示 原因的過渡詞有:dueto, because of, owing to, since, as, result from, on account of等。如:It is difficult for workers to fin

11、d employment this year. One reason is that industries are reducing their current stafflevels because of a decline in national economic condition. Another reason is that workers who once might have considered earlyretirement are not staying at their jobs. Finally, other workers who used to view their

12、 jobs as optional now must keep their positionsin order to meet their minimum financial responsibilities.4.比擬對照法：通過比擬兩個或一個事物的兩個方面的相似點或不同點來支持主題句。常用 的過渡詞中上匕較木目同點 的有：like, same, in the same way, similar to, similarly, both - and,in common等； 對照不同點的有:however, although, but unlike, differ from, be differe

13、nt from,on the other hand, in contrast, whereas等。如：People, when you first meet them, dont look particularly amazing and you really have no desire to spend a long time chattingwith them. However, as time passes and you have had a lot of contact with him you can see him as more and more lively, a good

14、,kind-hearted person. So your first impressions are often not reliable. This proves exactly the phrase: Never judge a book byits. 刀cover.5.分類法：通過對所表達的事物進行分門別類來展開段落。常用的詞語有：to divide into, to classify - into, according to, in terms of, on the basis of, kinds, types, sorts, groups, categories等。A group

15、of people with the same color of skin, shape of head and type of hair is called a race. Scientists divided the peopleof the world into five different races. Most people belong to the three main ones, which are the white skinned, the black skinnedand the yellow skinned races. The two smaller ones are

16、 the Australian Aborigines and the Bushmen of Southern Africa.6.定義法：通過說明事物的性質(zhì)和特征來開展段落，常用于說明文、描寫文和議論文。常用的詞語有:to be defined as, to refer to, the definition of, the term, to mean, to be等。如：Ambition means the goal in our life. To have ones ambition does not necessarily mean to become one of the chief st

17、ate leaders.This is not the real sense of the word. True ambition encourages us always to look forward and not to lose hope in face of failure.Ambition differs from person to person and everyone has his own ambition. Yet not every one of us can succeed in what we desire.7.綜合法：以上六種段落開展的方法經(jīng)常綜合使用。在段落中同

18、時交叉使用兩種或以上的方法，使段落表達得更加完整有力。成篇一篇文章，不管有多少段，其結(jié)構(gòu)不外乎由引言(introduction)、正文(body)和結(jié)尾(conclusion)三大局部組成。一、 引言的寫法1.主題句法：開門見山，直接點出主題或亮出作者對問題的看法。As the pace of life continues to increase, we are fast losing the art of relaxation. Once you are in the habit of rushingthrough life, being on the go from morning til

19、l night, it is hard to slow down. But relaxation is essential for a healthy mindand body.2.問題法：用問題來引出文章內(nèi)容Is there a succespersonality -some successful combination of traits that leads almost certainly to achievement? If so,exactly what is that secret success formula, and can anyone cultivate it?3.數(shù)據(jù)

20、法：引用已經(jīng)證實的數(shù)據(jù)來提出問題The fact that less than 5 percent of the British population graduate from university may seem surprising, especially whenviewed beside the American percentage of over 30 percent. To understand this contract, one needs to consider social differencesbetween the two countries, as well a

21、s differences in their theories of education.4.引語法：引用名言或常用的習語、諺語等作為文章的開頭。The proper study of mankind is man. said Alexander Pope. Most psychologists have carried this idea further than Popewould have imaged.5.對立法：先引出人們對某一問題的不同看法，然后提出作者自己的看法。When asked about what kind of career they will pursue after

22、 graduation, most of the college students say that they wouldchoose a job which will bring them a lot of money and a comfortable life. But as for me, I prefer a career which will help realizemy potential.二、 正文的寫法正文通常由一段或幾段組成，從不同側(cè)面對文章的主題展開討論，各段闡述的主題必須與文章的主題一致。三、 結(jié)尾的寫法結(jié)尾段用于概括全文的內(nèi)容。常用結(jié)尾段的寫法有：1.結(jié)論性結(jié)尾：照應(yīng)

23、引言段，進一步肯定文章的中心思想或作者的觀點。2.建議性結(jié)尾：就文章討論的問題提出解決問題的方法或建議，指明努力的方向。3.引語性結(jié)尾：引用名人名言、諺語來總結(jié)全文。4.反問式結(jié)尾：以問句的形式說明肯定的意義，具有明顯的強調(diào)作用，以引起讀者思 考。5.轉(zhuǎn)折性結(jié)尾：指出所討論問題的消極一面或有可能產(chǎn)生的不良后果。四、 列提綱提綱是文章寫作的方案，也是一篇文章的根本框架。列提綱有以下好處：有助于理清和 擴大思路；可以按次序排好素材；將文章分段；明確寫作的中心，不至于走題。高考時間有 限，學生更應(yīng)注意列提綱理清思路，保證文章的條理性。如：Thesis: New Tuition Fee Policy弓

24、I言：New tuition fee policy all pay for tuition正文:Some poor students facing difficultiesa. pay for tuition, books, accommodation and other necessities of lifeb. try their best but cannot bear the expenses, some get into debt, some on the edge of discontinuing schooling結(jié)尾：the measures to lighten their

25、family burdena. set up scholarshipb. establish low-interest loansc. provide more part-time jobs在此根底上，將上述提綱中的各點寫成句子并加上必要的過渡詞連貫成文，便可寫成一篇短文。當然，提綱并非是固定不變的。在寫作過程中，還會出現(xiàn)新的靈感，可以根據(jù)文章內(nèi)容和結(jié)構(gòu)的需要進行適當?shù)男薷?。但文章的形式和主要?nèi)容根本上都是寫作前決定的，因而寫作前的醞釀和方案是最為關(guān)鍵的階段。練習1.認真閱讀以下短文，并選出最適合本文的標題。Former American President Bill Clinton once

26、 travelled to South Korea to visit President Kim Young Sam. He repeatedly referredto the Korean presidents wife as Mrs. Kim. By mistake, President Clintons advisers thought that Koreans have the same namingcustoms as the Japanese. Clinton had not been told that, in Korea, wives keep their family nam

27、es. President Kim Young Sams wifewas named Sohn Myong Suk. Therefore, she should be addressed as Mrs. Sohn.In addition to Koreans, some Asian husbands and wives do not share the same family names; this practice often puzzlesEnglish-speaking teachers when talking with a pupils parents. They become pu

28、zzled about the student s correct last name. Placingthe family name first is common among a number of Asian cultures.Mexican naming customs are different as well. When a woman marries, she keeps her family name and adds her husbands nameafter the word do (of). This affects how they fill in forms in

29、the United States. When requested to fill in a middle name, theygenerally write the father s family name, but Mexicans are addressed by the family name of the mother. This often causes puzzlement.Here are a few ways to deal with such difficult situations: don t always thing that a married woman uses

30、 her husbands lastname. Remember that in many Asian cultures, the order of first and last names is reversed. Ask which name a person would preferto use. If the name is difficult to pronounce, admit it, and ask the person to help you say it correctly.A.How to Remember a Name WellB.Name CustomsC.How t

31、o Call a Wife in Asia2.認真閱讀以下短文，依據(jù)A D四個選項，為2-5段每一節(jié)段落找出最貼切的標題；同 時為全文擬一個適宜的標題。A.tears attract help from others and enable us to understand our emotions better.B.crying also has many health advantages.C.not crying can be bad for physical healthD.crying seems important to our emotional health.When I was

32、 small and my grandmother died, I couldn t understand why I had no tears. Butthat night when my dad tried to cheer me up, my laugh turned into crying.So it came as no surprise to learn that researchers believe crying and laughing come from the same part of the brain. Justas laughing has many health

33、advantages, scientists are discovering that so, too, does crying.Whatever it takes for us to reduce pressure is important to our emotional health, and crying seems to work well. One studyfound that 85 percent of women and 73 percent of men report feeling better after crying.Besides, tears attract he

34、lp from other people. Researchers agree that when we cry, people around us become kinder and friendlyand they are more ready to provide support and comfort. Tears also enable us to understand our emotions better; sometimes we don t evenr出vew wesad until we cry. We learn about our emotions through Cr

35、ying, and then we can deal with them.Just as crying can be healthy, not crying holding back tears of anger, pain or suffering can be bad for physical health,Studies have shown that too much control of emotions can lead to high blood pressure, heart problems and some other illnesses.If you have a hea

36、lth problem, doctors will certainly not ask you to cry. But when you feel like crying, dont fight it. Its anatural and healthy emotional response. The main idea of each paragraph:Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 4 Paragraph 5D The best tile for the passage:_3.為以下每一段找到適宜的標題，并且將段落重新排序。A.poverty is on

37、e of the main reasonsB.no one would like to be homelessC.many reasons for homelessnessD.many people are homeless.E.many homeless people are treated unfairly1. Some homeless people are mentally ill and have no one to look after them. Some are young people who, for one reason oranother, have left home

38、 and have nowhere to live. Many of them have had a serious disagreement with their parents and have lefthome, choosing to go to a city and live on the streets. Sometimes they have taken such action because they have been unable toget on with a step-parent.2. In many countries the standard of living

39、enjoyed by their people has increased rapidly in recent years. Sadly, not everyonein these countries is so fortunate and many people in rich countries are homeless.3. Some cynics 憤世嫉俗的人declare that homeless people choose to live the life which they lead. But who would willinglychoose to live in a sh

40、op doorway, under a bridge or in a cardboard box?4. The reasons for homelessness are various, but poverty貧窮is undoubtedly one of themain causes. The homeless people may have become jobless and then been unable to pay their rent and so no longer have a roof overtheir heads. Often, the fact that unemp

41、loyed people get help from the government prevents this from happening, but not always.1The main idea of each paragraph:Paragraph 1 Paragraph 2 Paragraph 3 Paragraph 42The correct order:_4.根據(jù)文章內(nèi)容理清文章的結(jié)構(gòu)。Are There Extra-Terrestrials?(1) Many scientists today believe that life exists elsewhere in the

42、universe life probably much like that on our own planet.They reason in the following way.(2) As far as astronomers can determine, the entire universe is built of the same matter. They have no reason to doubt thatmatter obeys the same laws in every part of the universe. Therefore, it is reasonable to

43、 guess that other stars, with their ownplanets, were born in the same way as our own solar system. What we know of life on earth suggests that life will arise whereverthe proper conditions exist.(3) Life requires the right amount and kind of atmosphere. This eliminates all those planets in the unive

44、rse that are notabout the same size and weight as the earth. A smaller planet would lose its atmosphere; a larger one would hold too much of it.(4) Life also requires a steady supply of heat and light. This eliminates double stars, or stars that burn up suddenly.Only single stars that are steady sou

45、rces of heat and light like our sun would qualify. Finally, life could develop only if theplanet is just the right distance from its sun.With a weaker sun than our own, the planet would have to be closer to it. With a stronger sun, it would have to be farther away.(5) If we suppose that every star i

46、n the universe has a family of planets, then how many planets might support life? First,eliminate those stars that are not like our sun. Next, eliminate most of their planets; they are either too far from or too closeto their suns. Then eliminate all those planets which are not the same size and wei

47、ght as the earth. Finally, remember that theproper conditions do not necessarily mean that life actually does exist on a planet. It may not have begun yet, or it may havealready died out.(6) This process of eliminate seems to leave very few planets on which earthlike life might be found. However, ev

48、en if lifecould exist on only one planet in a million, there are so many billions of planets that this would still leave a vast number onwhich life could exist.The title_The beginning paragraph_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 1_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 2_Topic sentence_Body paragraph 3_Topic sent

49、ence_Body paragraph 4_Topic sentence_The concluding paragraph_Topic sentence_1.B2. BDAC The functions of tears3. CDBA DBCA4.The title:Are There Extra-Terrestrials?The beginning paragraph: Paragraph (1)Many scientists today believe that life exists elsewhere in the universe life probably much like th

50、at on our ownplanet. They reason in the following way.Topic sentence:They reason in the following way.Body paragraph 1: Paragraph (2)As far as astronomers can determine, the entire universe is built of the same matter.They have no reason to doubt that matter obeys the same laws in every part of the

51、universe. Therefore, it is reasonableto guess that other stars, with their own planets, were born in the same way as our own solar system. What we knowof life on earth suggests that life will arise wherever the proper conditions exist.Topic sentence:What we know of life on earth suggests that life will arise wherever the proper conditions exist.Body paragraph 2: Paragraph (3)Life requires the right amount and kind of atmosphere. This eliminates all those planets in the universe that are notabout the same size and weight as the earth. A smaller planet would lose its atmosphe