建筑學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文

1、建筑學(xué)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)的外文文獻(xiàn)及譯文文獻(xiàn)、資料題目：?Advanced Encryption Standard?文獻(xiàn)、資料發(fā)表出版日期：2004.10.25 系 部：建筑工程系 學(xué) 生：陸總 LYY 外文文獻(xiàn)：Modern ArchitectureModern architecture, not to be confused with contemporary architecture, is a term given to a number of building styles with similar characteristics, primarily the simplification o

2、f form and the elimination of ornament. While the style was conceived early in the 20th century and heavily promoted by a few architects, architectural educators and exhibits, very few Modern buildings were built in the first half of the century. For three decades after the Second World War, however

3、, it became the dominant architectural style for institutional and corporate building. 1. Origins Some historians see the evolution of Modern architecture as a social matter, closely tied to the project of Modernity and hence to the Enlightenment, a result of social and political revolutions. Others

4、 see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological and engineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new building materials such as iron, steel, concrete and glass drove the invention of new building techniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury

5、mill owner Charles Bage first used his fireproof design, which relied on cast iron and brick with flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure of mills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poor knowledge of irons properties as a construction mate

6、rial, a number of early mills collapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced the section beam, leading to widespread use of iron construction, this kind of austere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northern Britain, leading to the description,

7、 Dark satanic mills of places like Manchester and parts of West Yorkshire. The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was an early example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by Will

8、iam Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank Lloyd Wrights Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiners Second Goetheanum, built from 1926 near

9、Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excesses of Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions

10、to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work of Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can b

11、e seen as a common struggle between old and new. 2. Modernism as Dominant Style By the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three are commonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in German

12、y. Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools and associations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology. Frank Lloyd Wrights career parallels and influences the work of the European modernists, particularly via th

13、e Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be categorized with them. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture.In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition of Modern Architecture, curated by Philip

14、Johnson. Johnson and collaborator Henry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends, identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, and consolidated them into the International Style. This was an important turning point. With World War II the important fig

15、ures of the Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architectural design never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, in institutional and commercial architecture Modernism became

16、the pre-eminent, and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, design solution from about 1932 to about 1984.Architects who worked in the international style wanted to break with architectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The most commonly used mater

17、ials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, and concrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional and logical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps its most famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (Le Corbus

18、ier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building (Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill), all in New York. A prominent residential example is the Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles. Detractors of the international style claim that its sta

19、rk, uncompromisingly rectangular geometry is dehumanising. Le Corbusier once described buildings as machines for living, but people are not machines and it was suggested that they do not want to live in machines. Even Philip Johnson admitted he was bored with the box. Since the early 1980s many arch

20、itects have deliberately sought to move away from rectilinear designs, towards more eclectic styles. During the middle of the century, some architects began experimenting in organic forms that they felt were more human and accessible. Mid-century modernism, or organic modernism, was very popular, du

21、e to its democratic and playful nature. Alvar Aalto and Eero Saarinen were two of the most prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism. Although there is debate as to when and why the decline of the modern movement occurred, criticism of Modern arc

22、hitecture began in the 1960s on the grounds that it was universal, sterile, elitist and lacked meaning. Its approach had become ossified in a style that threatened to degenerate into a set of mannerisms. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time and Architecture (f

23、irst written in 1941), could begin At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporary architecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion. At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961 symposium discussed the question Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis? In New York, t

24、he coup dtat appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of air rights,1 In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglas Haskell it was seen to sever the Park Avenue streetscape and ta

25、rnish the reputations of its consortium of architects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons. The rise of postmodernism was attributed to disenchantment with Modern architecture. By the 1980s, postmodern architecture appeared triumphant over modernism, including the tem

26、ple of the Light of the World, a futuristic design for its time Guadalajara Jalisco La Luz del Mundo Sede International; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and by the mid-1990s, a neo-modern (or hypermodern) architecture had once again established international pre-eminence. As part of t

27、his revival, much of the criticism of the modernists has been revisited, refuted, and re-evaluated; and a modernistic idiom once again dominates in institutional and commercial contemporary practice, but must now compete with the revival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institut

28、ional architecture; residential design continues to be dominated by a traditional aesthetic.- 8 -中文譯文：現(xiàn) 代 建 筑現(xiàn)代建筑,不被混淆與當(dāng)代建筑 , 是一個(gè)詞給了一些建筑風(fēng)格有類似的特點(diǎn), 主要的簡化形式,消除裝飾等. 雖然風(fēng)格的設(shè)想早在20世紀(jì),并大量造就了一些建筑師、建筑教育家和展品,很少有現(xiàn)代的建筑物,建于20世紀(jì)上半葉. 第二次大戰(zhàn)后的三十年, 但最終卻成為主導(dǎo)建筑風(fēng)格的機(jī)構(gòu)和公司建立.1起源一些歷史學(xué)家認(rèn)為進(jìn)化的現(xiàn)代建筑作為一個(gè)社會(huì)問題, 息息相關(guān)的工程中的現(xiàn)代性,從而影響了啟蒙運(yùn)動(dòng)

29、,導(dǎo)致社會(huì)和政治革命. 另一些人認(rèn)為現(xiàn)代建筑主要是靠技術(shù)和工程學(xué)的開展, 那就是獲得新的建筑材料,如鋼鐵, 混凝土和玻璃驅(qū)車創(chuàng)造新的建筑技術(shù),它作為工業(yè)革命的一部分. 1796年, shrewsbury查爾斯bage首先用他的火的設(shè)計(jì), 后者那么依靠鑄鐵及磚與石材地板. 這些建立大大加強(qiáng)了構(gòu)造,使它們可以包容更大的機(jī)器. 由于作為建筑材料特性知識(shí)缺乏,一些早期建筑失敗. 直到1830年初,伊頓Hodgkinson預(yù)計(jì)推出了型鋼梁, 導(dǎo)致廣泛使用鋼架建立，工業(yè)構(gòu)造完全改變了這種窘迫的相貌,英國北部指導(dǎo)的描繪, 黑暗魔鬼作坊的地方如曼徹斯特和西約克郡. 水晶宮由約瑟夫paxton的重大展覽, 18

30、51年,是一個(gè)早期的例子,鋼鐵及玻璃 施工; 可能是一個(gè)最好的例子,就是1890年由William樂男爵 延長和路易沙利文在芝加哥附近開展的高層鋼構(gòu)造摩天樓. 早期構(gòu)造采用混凝土作為行政手段的建筑表達(dá)(而非純粹功利構(gòu)造) ,包括建于1906年在芝加哥附近,勞埃德賴特的統(tǒng)一宮, 建于1926年瑞士巴塞爾附近的魯?shù)婪蛩固辜{的第二哥特堂,. 但無論原因?yàn)楹? 約有1900多位建筑師,在世界各地開始制定新的建筑方法,將傳統(tǒng)的先例(比方哥特式)與新的技術(shù)相結(jié)合的可能性.路易沙利文和賴特在芝加哥工作,維克多奧爾塔在布魯塞爾,安東尼高迪在巴塞羅那, 奧托瓦格納和查爾斯景mackintosh格拉斯哥在維也納,

31、其中之一 可以看作是一個(gè)新與舊的共同斗爭. 2現(xiàn)代主義風(fēng)格由1920年代的最重要人物,在現(xiàn)代建筑里確立了自己的名聲. 三個(gè)是公認(rèn)的柯布西耶在法國, 密斯范德爾德羅和瓦爾特格羅皮烏斯在德國. 密斯范德爾德羅和格羅皮烏斯為董事的包豪斯, 其中歐洲有不少學(xué)校和有關(guān)團(tuán)體學(xué)習(xí)調(diào)和工藝和傳統(tǒng)工業(yè)技術(shù). 賴特的建筑生涯中,也影響了歐洲建筑的現(xiàn)代藝術(shù),特別是通過瓦斯穆特組合 但他回絕被歸類與他們. 賴特與格羅皮烏斯和Van der德羅對(duì)整個(gè)有機(jī)體系有重大的影響. 在1932年來到的重要moma展覽,是現(xiàn)代建筑藝術(shù)的國際展覽,藝術(shù)家菲利普約翰遜. 約翰遜和合作者亨利-羅素閣糾集許多鮮明的線索和趨勢, 內(nèi)容相似,有一個(gè)共同的目的,穩(wěn)固了他們?nèi)谌雵H化風(fēng)格 這是一個(gè)重要的轉(zhuǎn)折點(diǎn). 在二戰(zhàn)的時(shí)間包豪斯的代表人物逃到美國,芝加哥，到哈佛大學(xué)設(shè)計(jì)黑山書院. 當(dāng)現(xiàn)代建筑設(shè)計(jì)從未成為主導(dǎo)風(fēng)格單一的住宅樓，在成為現(xiàn)代卓越的體制和商業(yè)建筑, 是學(xué)校(專業(yè)指導(dǎo))的唯一可承受的, 設(shè)計(jì)解決方案,從約1932年至約1984年.那些從事國際風(fēng)格的建