學術英語(教師資料)U.pptVIP

,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Unit Contents,1 Writing a literature review 2 Writing a self-contained literature review 3 Writing a literature review as a part of an essay 4 Citation 5 Documentation 6 Avoiding plagiarism 7 Paraphrasing 8 Enhancing your academic language,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,1 Writing a literature review,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Aliterature review is a very important part of the research project. It may be a self-contained review or a part of the introduction to an academic essay. In either case, its purpose is to demonstrate a clear understanding of the topic being investigated. Namely, your literature review must tell what has been done on the topic, what different scholars have said about their own research, what major findings have been published, and what controversial areas exist. A good literature review can enhance the credibility of your research by indicating that your present study is based on a thorough and critical knowledge of what has been done in the field.,Before writing, to be critical, you must ask questions like these about each book or article you read: Is the problem clearly defined? Is its significance clearly established? Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective or on another theory? Is the authors research orientation (e.g. descriptive, critical, empirical) appropriate? Is there a theoretical framework and is it appropriate to the research (e.g. psychological, developmental, cognitive, feminist)? Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author include literature taking positions she or he does not agree with?, How reliable are the basic components of the study design (e.g. population, variables, outcome)? How accurate and valid are the methods used? Is the analysis of the data accurate and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions validly based upon the data and analysis? Does the author avoid using one-sided examples, or rhetorically-charged language and tone? Is there an objective basis to the reasoning? In what ways does this book or article contribute to your understanding of the problem under study, and in what ways is it useful for practice? What are the strengths and limitations?,While writing your literature review, it is important for you to take the following tips: indicate the objective of the literature review; search for materials relevant to the topic being investigated; read the materials carefully and critically before determining which literature contributes most to your topic; discuss the findings and conclusions of each article in a critical way; describe the relationship of each work to others under consideration; organize your review in a logical order (e.g. those in support of the topic, those against it, those offering alternatives); explain if possible their similarities and differences; identify gaps in the literature for further study or point out what is left to explore; indicate the way forward for further research.,Task 1,1 Are there anything in common for these four articles in terms of the time of their publicafion and their topics? 2 What ophnions are shared by the authors of these articles? 3 What opinions cause disagreement and even controversy? 4 What do you think of the disagreement and controversy? 5 Which article(s) do you find most reliable and trustworthy? Why?,2 Writing a self-contained literature review,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,There are two types of literature reviews. One is an independent, self-contained report, and the other is a part of an academic essay. A self-contained literature review reports the past research activities on the topic being investigated, especially their studies and findings. To some extent the literature review itself is an essay. Hence it should be written in detail, including the methods apart from findings and conclusions. The steps of writing a self-contained literature review are the followings: 1) write a summary of each article you have gathered for your literature review; 2) combine the summaries logically, by using connective phrases or sentences; 3) write an introductory paragraph, including the definition of the topic and its background information; 4) make your comments, if necessary, on the past studies.,TASK1,Read the following self-contained literature review and answer the questions belowo 1 Which sentences supply the background information about the literature review? 2 What is the objective of the literature review? 3 How many articles does the writer refer to in the literature review? 4 What findings does each article give respectively? 5 Which sentences does the writer use to connect these findings?,Stigma of Mental IIIness,Stigmatization, a kind of social rejection, is a big challenge to the mentally ill. They are rejected by people because of the label they carry or that their behaviors indicate that they belong to a certain labeled group. However, many studies have proved that stigmatization of the mentally ill is caused by the publics belief in myths about the dangerousness of the mentally ill and exposing those myths can reduce stigmatization. Pescosolido and 33% felt that the depressed person do violence to others. Thus, a common respond to the mentally ill are rejection and fear of violence. What aremajor causes for the rejection and fear, and can they be reduced? Cprrigan, Rpwan,Green, Lundin, River, Uphoff-Wasowski, White and Kubiak (2002) conducted two studies analyzing the causal processes in contact, fear and rejection. They designed two models to account for stigmatizing reactions and administered a questionnaire to 216 community colleges. This questionnaire contained items which would allow the examination of their attitudes to a mental patient when the variables of two models were involved and manipulated: personal responsibility and perceived dangerousness. Their studies demonstrated that contact with the mentally ill caused less rejection and fear. This finding is verified by Alexander and Link (2003). They conducted a telephone survey and found that, as a participants own life contact with mentally ill individuals increased, participants were both less likely to perceive a target mentally ill individual as physically dangerous and less likely to desire social distance from the target. This: relationship remained after controlling for demographic and confound variables, such as gender, ethnicity, education, income and political conservatism. They also found that any type of contact-with a friend, a spouse, a family member, a work contact, or a contact in a public place-with mentally ill individuals reduced perceptions of dangerousness of the target.,3 Writing a literature review as a part of an essay,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Unlike a self-contained literature review, a literature review as a part of an essay is not a mere combination of summaries of material sources. The choice of previous research and even ideas and findings in a previous article is completely based on the research questions you set out to answer in your essay. In other words, you should avoid including in your literature review all ideas and findings in the previous articles. Most important is that such a literature review should contain your critical comments on the previous studies, especially their weaknesses or limitations so that your present study will be more rational and significant rather than being a repeat. The literature review as a part of the essay will be shorter than a self-contained literature review, introducing the main findings of each work only.,TASK1 Read the following self-contained literature review and answer the questions below,1 Which sentences supply the background information about the literature review? 2 What is the objective of the literature review? 3 How many articles does the writer refer to in the literature review? 4 What findings does each article give respectively? 5 Which sentences does the writer use to connect these findings?,Sample:Content-based instruction:Long-term effects and outcomes,Content-based instruction (CBI)is an alternative approach to teaching English. In such an approach, language teaching is integrated within discipline-specific content courese. The major goal is to equip students with academic literacy skills across the curriculum. CBI has gained wide acceptance in U.S. undergraduate institutions. Its cognitive and linguistic effects have been studied and reported. Numerous research studies demonstrate consistently that content-based second language teaching promotes both language acquisition and academic success (Grabe Ready & Wesche, 1992) and in the productive skills of writing (Burger, 1989) and speaking (Burger & Chretien, 2001) They also achieve,comparable or even better mastery of disciplinary content than students not receiving content-based instruction (Andrade Winter, 2004). However, the literature on CBI has focused mainly on its most immediate effects, i.e., the outcomes of one or two semesters in which content-based instruction was provided. Studies on the sustained or long-term benefits of content-based language instruction are scarce. As variations of the content-based ESL curriculum have evolved over the years, the interest in the longer-term studies has grown. Those of us who teach in content-linked programs are especially interested in determining its effects on future learning. For example, will the significant gains in the second language as a result of CBI give students an advantage in subsequent English courses? How will CBI impact students future academic performance? Will it translate into sustainable academic success, often judged by measures such as GPA and graduatio rate?,4 Citation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Citation, the way to use sources, is a major part of a literature review and is also frequently used in supporting your arguments. There are two methods. One is quoting(copying the exact words of the author) and the other is paraphrasing (rewriting what the writer said in your own words). Though both are possible and acceptable, paraphrasing is much more common than quoting in academic writing. Direct copying is not strongly recommended unless the writers words are special. This is often the case with strongly stated definition or opinions. Citation consists of two parts: i) citation of the content and ii) documentation of its source. In the following paragraph, for example, names of the authors and dates in parentheses are the in-text documentation and the rest is the content of citation.,Several detrimental effects of GM crops had been showed on the metabolism of animals. The hazard of genetically modified organisms (GMO) was shown for animals and the environment in many investigations (Traavik 1995; Ho and Tappeser 1997; Pusztai 1999 and 2001; Kuznetcov et al. 2004 and others). There are different citation patterns for both quoting and paraphrasing. Now note the differences between them.,4 Citation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,5 Documentation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Coupled with citation is documentation which means the identification of the source of the ideas and quotations used in the l iterature review orand in your research paper. In other words you have to tell the reader that you used the source and where it came from. Failing to document your sources, whether intentionally or unintentionally, is plagiarism, the use of another writers words or ideas Without documenting the sou rce. Hence documentation includes the identification not only of the words and sentences you copied but also of the ideas and information you borrowed.,In-text documentation, or rather,a brief parenthetical acknowledgement in the text, contains two parts：i)the last name of the author(s) and ii)the date of their publication in parentheses as shown in the underlined parts of the foIlowing passage. Several detrimental effects of GM crops had been showed on the metabolism of animals. q-he hazard of genetically modified organisms (GMO) was shown for animals and the environment in many investigations: (Traavik 1995; Ho and Tappeser l997: Pusztai 1999 and 2001; Kuznetcov et al2004 arid others). At the same time Brake and Evenson (2004) malyzing the testis in mice as a sensitive biomonitor of potential toxic, didfft find negative effects of transgenic soybean diet on fetal，postnatal, puber talor adult testicular development. Remember: the information in the iparenthetical references should be given its accurate and specific details of the sources in the reference list at the end of your paper. Look at the following reference list of the quotes:,5 Documentation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Brake, D. G. and Evenson, D. P. (2004). A generational study of glyphosate-tolerant soybeans on mouse fetal, postnatal, pubertal and adult testicular development. Food Chemistry and Toxicology, 42: 29-36.,Ho, M. W. and Tappeser, B. (1997). Potential contributions of horizontal gene transfer to the transboundary movement of living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology. In Transboundary Movement of Living Modified Organisms Resulting from Modern Biotechnology: Issues and Opportunities for Policy-Makers (K. J. Mulongoy, ed.) International Academy of the Environment, Switzerland: 171-193.,5 Documentation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Kuznetcov, W., Kulikov, A. M., Mitrohin I. A. and Cidendambaev, V. D. (2004). Genetically modified organisms and biological safety. Ecos, 2004:3-64 Ultrastructural, morphometrical and immunocytochemical analysis of hepatocyte nuclei from mice fed on genetically modified soybean. Cell Struct. Funct., 27: 173-180.,Pusztai, A. (1998). Report of Project Coordinator on data produced at the Rowett Research Institute. SOAEFD flexible Fund Project RO 818. 22 October 1998.,5 Documentation,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Pusztai, A. (2001). Genetically modified foods: Are they a risk to human/animal health. Biotechnology: Genetically Modified Organisms. 2001.,Traavik, T. (1999). Too early may be too late. Ecological risks associated with the use of naked DNA as a biological tool for research, production and therapy (Norwegian). Report for the Directorate for Nature Research Tungasletta 2, 7005 Trondheim. English Translation, 1999.,6 Avoiding plagiarism,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Writing an academic essay, especially a literature review, involves borrowing source materials from others. When you do not deal with it correctly, however, it is easy to fall into the trap of plagiarism, both intentional or unintentional. Plagiarism is kind of theft, referring to the use of others ideas, findings, arguments, data, and words without appropriate citation or documentation. According to Gibaldi (1999), plagiarism is committed when a person fails to give appropriate citation and documentation when 1) he/she copies a sentence from the sources; 2) he/she paraphrases anothers argument; 3) he/she presents anothers line of thinking.,Hence, always remember: You must use quotation marks on ANY text taken directly from another source, even from a course textbook, a lecture, a broadcast, a recording, or from another persons unpublished work. You also must document the source even if you indirectly paraphrase another persons writings. It is wrong to think that there is no need to use the in-text documentation simply because you document the sources of the quotes in the reference list at the end of your paper. It is also wrong to think that there is no need to document some ideas or facts simply because everyone knows where they come from, although it is not necessary to document common knowledge as long as it is truly known by most people.,6 Avoiding plagiarism,1 The sun rises in the east. (CK),Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,2 Paris is the capital of France. (CK),3 Fudan is one of the best universities in China.,4 Shanghai students speak better English than Sichuan students because of less accent.,5 Chinese college students are mostly scientific illiterate.,6 There are 1.3 billion residents in China in 2011.,7 One can never judge a person by his appearance. (CK),6 Avoiding plagiarism,1：a) lacks both the inside acknowledgement and the reference.,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,2：a) lacks the inside acknowledgement.,3：a) fails to use the quotation mark when it uses the exact words of the original.,4：a) lacks both the inside acknowledgement and the reference.,5：a) lacks the inside acknowledgement.,6：a) lacks the inside acknowledgement.,7：a) doesnt use the quotation mark when it uses the exact words of the original.,8：a) lacks the inside acknowledgement.,7 Paraphrasing,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,Paraphrasing is a complete rewriting or restating. It is a condensed version of another authors work, or putting the authors words into your own words though you should avoid any interpretation of the source materials. In paraphrasing you should make sure that the words and structures you use are different as much as possible from the original. It is not enough to change only a few words such as replacing a few verbs or adjectives with synonyms: This will result in plagiarism. Appropriate paraphrasing means rewriting with substantial changes in language and organization.,7 Paraphrasing,1 a),Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,2 b),7 Paraphrasing,3 Paraphrase: Instructivists hold that the “real world,” external to individuals, can be represented as knowledge and determines what will be understood by individuals. This view has been shifting to a constructivist view over the past decade (Merrinboer, 1997).,Unit 4 Writing a Literature Review,4 Paraphrase: Two components must be present in an instructional design theory. The first component (methods) describes how human learning will be supported, and the second componen