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SUSTAINABLE
AVIATIONFUELS
INSOUTHEASTASIA
Aregionalperspectiveonbio-basedsolutions
?IRENA2024
Unlessotherwisestated,materialinthispublicationmaybefreelyused,shared,copied,reproduced,printedand/orstored,providedthatappropriateacknowledgementisgivenofIRENAasthesourceandcopyrightholder.Materialinthispublicationthatisattributedtothirdpartiesmaybesubjecttoseparatetermsofuseandrestrictions,andappropriatepermissionsfromthesethirdpartiesmayneedtobesecuredbeforeanyuseofsuchmaterial.
ISBN:978-92-9260-623-7
Citation:IRENA(2024),SustainableaviationfuelsinSoutheastAsia:Aregionalperspectiveonbio-basedsolutions,InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency,AbuDhabi.
AboutIRENA
TheInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)isanintergovernmentalorganisationthatsupportscountriesintheirtransitiontoasustainableenergyfuture,andservesastheprincipalplatformforinternationalco-operation,acentreofexcellence,andarepositoryofpolicy,technology,resourceandfinancialknowledgeonrenewableenergy.IRENApromotesthewidespreadadoptionandsustainableuseofallformsofrenewableenergy,includingbioenergy,geothermal,hydropower,ocean,solarandwindenergy,inthepursuitofsustainabledevelopment,energyaccess,energysecurityandlow-carboneconomicgrowthandprosperity.
Acknowledgements
ThisreportwasdevelopedundertheguidanceofRolandRoesch(Director,IRENAInnovationandTechnologyCentre)andRicardoGorini.ItwasauthoredbyChunShengGoh,RicardoGorini(IRENA),KanErnLiew,ZoeTayHuiYee,ArunchelviManie,LongLitChewandFarahEzatiSaindi(Consultants).ThereportbenefitedfromthereviewsandinputsofIRENAcolleaguesMaisarahAbdulKadir,CarlosRuiz,JinleiFengandPaulKomor.ThereportalsobenefitedfromthevaluablereviewsandcontributionsofstakeholdersandexpertsfromIndonesia’sDirectorateGeneralofNewRenewableEnergyandEnergyConservationIndonesia,Malaysia’sMinistryofEnergyTransitionandWaterTransformation,Philippines’DepartmentofEnergy,Thailand’sDepartmentofAlternativeEnergyDevelopmentandEfficiency,andASEANCentreforEnergy.IRENAwouldliketothanktheGovernmentofJapanforsupportingIRENAwiththeworkthatformedthebasisofthisreport.PublicationssupportwasprovidedbyFrancisFieldandStephanieClarke.ThereportwaseditedbyStefanieDurbin,withdesignprovidedbyPhoenixDesignAid.
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AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
|3
CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS 5
KEYFINDINGS 6
INTRODUCTION 8
1.PRODUCTIONPOTENTIAL 11
1.1Scope 11
1.2Materialsandmethods 12
1.3Results 14
1.4Discussion 20
1.5Keyfindings 23
2.ECONOMICASSESSMENT 24
2.1Scope 24
2.2Materialandmethods 26
2.3Results 29
2.4Discussion 31
2.5Keyfindings 32
3.REGIONALPERSPECTIVES 33
3.1Scope 33
3.2Materialsandmethods 34
3.3GlobaldevelopmentandimplicationsforSoutheastAsia 34
3.4Countrystatusandperspectives 37
3.5Discussion 44
3.6Keyfindings 47
4.RECOMMENDATIONS 48
(A)Across-sectorialframeworkforSAFdevelopment 49
(B)Aco-ordinatedregionalframeworkforSAFdevelopment 50
REFERENCES 51
SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUELSINSOUTHEASTASIA
4|
FIGURES
Figure1PotentialvolumeofSAFfromresiduesandwastes
comparedtoprojecteddemandin2050 15
Figure2Roughestimatesofunder-utilisedlow-carbonlandarea*inSoutheastAsia 17
Figure3PotentialSAFfromenergycropsfromunder-utilisedlow-carbonland*
comparedwithSAFdemandat70%blendin2050 18
Figure4ChangesinforestedareasinVietNam,1990-2020 22
Figure5CAPEXprojection(nthplantsandpioneerplants)forSAFplantsinIndonesia,
MalaysiaandThailand 29
Figure6RangeofMJSPsofSAFderivedfromvariousfeedstocks
throughdifferentpathwaysinnthplantsinIndonesia,MalaysiaandThailand 31
Figure7ProgressofSAFdevelopmentindifferentregions 35
TABLES
Table1Feedstocksconsidered 12
Table2AssumedSAFyieldfromthemostcommonpathwaysapprovedbyICAO 14
Table3Non-exhaustivelistofplannedandoperatingSAFproductionplantsinSoutheastAsia 25
Table4Baselinefeedstockprices 28
Table5Currentstatusofpolicydevelopment 34
BOXES
Box1CurrentstatusofCORSIA 9
Box2Non-standardcoconutsasfeedstock 17
Box3CurrentstatusofinternationalUCOtrade 21
Box4TheASEAN-SAM 46
AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
|5
ABBREVIATIONS
1G
ASEAN
ASEAN-SAMASTM
ATAGATJ
CAAS
CAPEXCEF
CORSIA
CPOEFBEJ
EU
FAOSTAT
FCI
FFB
FT
GDPGHGha
HEFA
IATA
ICAO
ICCT
IRENA
1stgenerationbiofuel
AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations
ASEANSingleAviationMarket
AmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterial
AirTransportActionGroupalcohol-to-jet
CivilAviationAuthorityofSingapore
capitalexpenditureCORSIAeligiblefuel
CarbonOffsettingandReductionSchemeforInternationalAviation
crudepalmoil
emptyfruitbunchExajoule
EuropeanUnion
UnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganizationstatisticaldata
fixedcapitalinvestmentfreshfruitbunch
Fischer-Tropsch
grossdomesticproductgreenhousegas
hectare
hydroprocessedestersandfattyacids
InternationalAirTransportAssociation
InternationalCivilAviationOrganisation
InternationalCouncilonCleanTransportation
InternationalRenewableEnergyAgency
ISCCCORSIAInternationalSustainabilityandCarbonCertificationCarbon
OffsettingandReduction
SchemeforInternationalAviation
IUCN
LaoPDR
LF
LTAGMADB
MBMMFSPMhaMJSPMoUMSWMt
NETR
NPV
OPEX
PFAD
PKS
POME
POMEoil
PPPREDRSB
SAFSAPSDGSIA
t
THBTRL
SPKUCOUSD
yr
InternationalUnionforConservationofNature
LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic
locationfactor
LongTermAspirationalGoal
MalaysiaAviation
DecarbonisationBlueprintmarket-basedmeasure
minimumfuelsellingpricemillionhectare
minimumjetfuelsellingprice
memorandumofunderstandingmunicipalsolidwaste
milliontonne
NationalEnergyTransitionRoadmap(Malaysia)
netpresentvalue
operatingexpenditurepalmfattyaciddistillatepalmkernelshell
palmoilmilleffluent
oilderivedfrompalmoilmilleffluent
purchasingpowerparity
RenewableEnergyDirectiveRoundtableonSustainableBiomaterials
sustainableaviationfuelStateActionPlan
SustainableDevelopmentGoalSingaporeAirlines
tonne
Thaibaht
technologyreadinesslevelsyntheticparaffinickeroseneusedcookingoil
UnitedStatesdollaryear
SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUELSINSOUTHEASTASIA
KEYFINDINGS
Thefindingsofthisreportemphasisetheurgencyofacceleratingthesustainablescale-upofbiofuelsupplychainsinSoutheastAsia.Inthenearterm,biofuelsremainthemostviableoptionforsignificantlyreducingaviationemissions.However,securingfeedstock,especiallyfromenergycrops,isnotsomethingthatcanbeachievedovernight:itrequiresstrategicplanning,infrastructureandinvestment.Carefulplanning,informedbysciencewithsocialdynamicsconsidered,especiallyinthecontextofSoutheastAsia,shouldbeginassoonaspossibletominimisetheriskofunintendedenvironmentalimpacts.Belowarekeyfindingsandrecommendations.
PRODUCTIONPOTENTIAL
?Relyingsolelyonresiduesandwasteforsustainableaviationfuel(SAF)inSoutheastAsiaisriskyduetocompetitionwithotherusesandcostchallenges.
?Growingenergycropsonunder-utilisedlow-carbonlandwillbeessential,buttheircultivationrequirescarefulmanagement.
?RecognisingthatSoutheastAsia’sfeedstockandlandresourcesvarysignificantlymakescross-bordertradeandforeigninvestmentcrucialtomeetingregionalSAFtargets.
?Strategicallyallocatingfeedstockamongdifferentenduseswillbecriticalconsideringthatlimitedoptionsareavailabletodecarbonisetheaviationsector.
?EngaginglocalstakeholdersandtailoringstrategiesareessentialinSAFproduction,especiallywhereruraldevelopmentandresourcegovernancearepriorities.
ECONOMICASSESSMENT
?SAFisstillcostly,withproductioncostsvaryingsignificantlyacrosscountries.
?Hydroprocessedestersandfattyacid(HEFA)technologyoffersthelowestcapitalexpenditure(CAPEX),makingitanattractivechoiceforearlySAFdevelopment.
?Reliable,affordablefeedstockforHEFAiskey,asfluctuatingvegetableoilpricesimpactcosts.Thisrequirescarefulplanningofenergycropproductionthatalsogeneratesco-benefitsforruraldevelopment,jobcreationandenvironmentalmanagement.
?Fischer-Tropsch(FT)plantsmayachievecompetitivenessatscale,buthighupfrontcostsrequirestrongfinancialsupport,incentivesandpolicybacking.
?Governmentsmustestablishfinancialmechanisms,encouragepublic-privatepartnershipsandpromoteregionalco-operationtoadvancelarge-scaleFTplantdeployment.
6|
AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
REGIONALPERSPECTIVES
?ProgressinSAFdevelopmentacrossSoutheastAsiavaries,withnotableadvancementsinSingapore,followedbyMalaysia,Indonesia,ThailandandthePhilippines.
?Onthedemandside,mostcountriesrespondreactivelytomarketsignalsandrelyonmandates,notsubsidies,todriveSAFadoption.
?Onthesupplyside,SAFproductionisbeingactivelypromotedaspartofindustrialdevelopment,withfiscalandnon-fiscalincentivesgiventoattractinvestment.
?ExternalplayerssuchasAustralia,ChinaandJapanarepartneringwithSoutheastAsiancountriesforexport-orientedSAFproduction,which,whileintensifyingfeedstockcompetition,bringsessentialcapitalandtechnology.
?Sustainablefeedstocksourcingisessential,especiallyascountriesexplorevariousenergycropstosupportSAFproduction.
?AregionalSAFframeworkcouldhelpbalancecompetitionandenhancesustainability.
?A“bookandclaim”systemmightofferflexibility,enablingcountriesatdifferentstagestomeetSAFtargetscollaboratively.
RECOMMENDATIONS
★
I.Across-sectorialframeworkforSAFdevelopment
?EstablishreliableandconsistentsuppliesofresiduesandwasteasSAFfeedstock.
?Establishclearguidelinesforenergycropcultivation.
?Reassessfeedstockallocationfordifferentenduses.
?Streamlinepolicyco-ordinationforefficientSAFimplementation.
II.Aco-ordinatedregionalframeworkforSAFdevelopment
?Developaregionalframeworktofacilitatetrade.
?FosterregionalcollaborationforSAFdeployments.
?Tailorpolicysupporttoregionalvariations.
|7
SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUELSINSOUTHEASTASIA
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INTRODUCTION
Inrecentyears,agrowingawarenessofclimatechange,industryresponsibilitiesandtheurgentneedforsustainabilityhasgainedmomentumintheaviationsector,whichisresponsibleforapproximately2-3%ofglobalanthropogenicemissions.Apivotalsteptowardsemissionreductionswasreachedduringthe37thAssemblyoftheInternationalCivilAviationOrganisation(ICAO)in2010,heldinMontreal,Canada.Actionableobjectiveswereestablishedtoenhancetheindustry’sefficiencyandsetcarbon-neutralgrowthgoals,makingtheaviationsectoraleaderinthiseffort.AframeworkwasintroducedforICAOanditsmemberstatestoidentifyandimplementsolutionstoreducegreenhousegas(GHG)emissions,coveringfourkeyareas:
?StateActionPlans(SAPs)
?SAFs
?market-basedmeasures(MBMs)
?globalaspirationalgoals.
Commencingin2012,eachICAOmemberstateagreedtosubmititsSAP,outliningabasketofmeasuresfortherespectivestatetoemploytoreduceitsemissions,includingcurrentactions,actionsinprogressandnear-futureactivities.Thebasketofmeasuresbyeachrespectivestateistailoredtothestate’slevelofdevelopment,itscircumstances,andtheassistanceorsupportrequired.ThesubmissionofaSAPhelpsICAOtoassesstheprogressmadeinachievingtheglobalaspirationalgoalforaviationdecarbonisation.
Additionally,aglobalschemeforMBMs,knownasCORSIA(CarbonOffsettingandReductionSchemeforInternationalAviation),wasdevelopedandadoptedbyICAOin2016.CORSIAcoversoperations,infrastructure,aircrafttechnology,SAF,andcarboncreditsandtrading(ICAO,2024a).Theschemeisimplementedinthreephases:avoluntarypilotphase(2021-2023),avoluntaryfirstphase(2024-2026)andamandatorysecondphase(2027-2035)formemberstates(seeBox1).Anet-zerotargetby2050andacarbon-neutralgrowthpath,knownastheLongTermAspirationalGoal(LTAG),wassetwithintheCORSIAframeworkin2019.ExpertsfromaroundtheworldworkingundertheICAO’sLTAGTaskGrouphavesimulatedandderivedthescenariosleadingupto2050(ICAO,n.d.a).
?Hhho/Shutterstock
AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
|9
Box1CurrentstatusofCORSIA
ToensureCORSIA’seffectiveness,athree-phaseapproachwasimplementedthatgraduallyensurestheadoptionofCORSIAbymemberstates.Currently,allCORSIAmemberstatesareinthevoluntaryphase,whichconsistsofthePilotPhase(2021-2023)andFirstPhase(2024-2026).InthevoluntaryFirstPhase,memberstatesperformtrials(pilots)anddemonstrationsofCORSIArequirementscompliance(suchasreporting,compliancewithCORSIAframeworksandstandards,andemissionsoffsetting).Thevoluntaryphase,settoendin2026,willdemonstratememberstates’readiness.Theirreadinesswillthendeterminewhetherare-assessmentincriteria,frameworkandreportingmayberequiredforthemandatoryphase(orSecondPhase),whichrunsfrom2027to2035.
Toensureitsadoptionbymemberstates,CORSIAhasalsoreleasedtoolsandstandards,suchastheCERTtool(CORSIACO2EstimationandReportingTool),CORSIAEligibleFuel(CEF)reference,CORSIAEligibleEmissionsUnitreferenceandtheCORSIACentralRegistry(CCR).ThesetoolshelptoensuregoodgovernanceindataandreportingtoCORSIA,supportingthetraceabilityofdecarbonisationforthesector.
Furthermore,tosupportthepracticalimplementationofSAF,CORSIAalsohasa"book&claim”mechanism.ThismechanismensuresaccesstoSAF’ssustainabilitycertificatesevenforcountrieswholacktheaccessorcapabilitytoproduceaSAF.ThisisfurtherdiscussedinChapter3,Section3.
Consideringthechallengesposedbyaircraftfleetelectrification,SAFderivedfromsustainablebio-basedfeedstockisseenasamajorcontributortoachievingGHGreductionandtoachievingnetzeroby2050(IRENA,2021).ICAO’sLTAGIntegratedScenarios2and3projectthatSAFcouldcontribute40-60%ofaviationemissionsreductionby2050.Meanwhile,theInternationalAirTransportAssociation(IATA)estimatesthatSAFwillneedtoaccountfor65%oftheaviationsector’srequiredemissionsreductionby2050(IATA,2023).
DeployingSAFrequiresdevelopingindividual“processbricks”andconnectingthemtomaturetheentiresupplychain.These“bricks”includefeedstockcollection,cultivation,processing,refining,blending,certification,validation,traceability,distributionandcostmanagement.Thisdeploymentrepresentsanewphaseintheaviationenergytransition,unlikeanythingseenbefore.TheSAFindustryisstillinitsinfancy,withacurrentglobalproductioncapacityoflessthan1%ofglobalaviationfuelusage.Bytheendof2024,IATAestimatesthattheproductionofSAFwillonlyreach1.5milliontonnes(Mt;1.9billionlitres),or0.53%ofglobalaviationfuelneeds(IATA,2024).
TheAirTransportActionGroup(ATAG)statesthat330MtofSAFwillbeneededaroundtheworldby2050(Blanshardetal.,2021).However,thesituationdifferssignificantlybyregion.Thesignificanceofregionalcontexts,particularlyintermsoffeedstockproduction,cannotbeoverstated.Theavailabilityoffeedstockiscloselytiedtogeographical,biophysicalandsocio-economicfactors,especiallywithintheland-basedsectors.Akeycomponentintheenergytransitionisto“alignenergyinfrastructuredevelopmentplanningtosocio-economicdevelopmentagendasandpriorities”(RES4A,IRENAandUNECA,2022).Forregionswithextensiveagricultureandforestrysectors,creatingsynergieswithexistingeconomicactivitiesisaprioritytoachievemultipleSustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs)andpreventclimatechange.
In2021,theInternationalRenewableEnergyAgency(IRENA)publishedareportsummarisingtheglobalprogressandpotentialofbio-jetfuelproduction(IRENA,2021).Whileitofferedacomprehensiveglobaloverview,thereisaneedtoconsiderregionalcontextsforadeeperunderstanding.Inthisregard,SoutheastAsiastandsout,gainingsignificantattentionintheurgentpushforSAF.
SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUELSINSOUTHEASTASIA
10|
SoutheastAsiaisrichinbiodiversity,andtheregionreliesheavilyonextensiveagriculturalandforestryactivities.Asitnavigatesthecomplexitiesofdecarbonisation,leveragingbio-basedresourcesforfuelpurposesbecomesafocalpointinaddressingthetrilemmaofachievingequitableeconomicgrowth,sustainablelandmanagementandajustenergytransition(IRENA,2023;IRENAandACE,2016).Theongoingenergytransitionintheaviationsectorprovidesacompellingopportunitytotransformconventionalland-basedeconomiesfromunsustainablelandexploitationtothesustainableuseofresourcesforfood,fuelandmaterials.
Furthermore,SoutheastAsiahassignificantairtrafficandahighdependenceontourism.Itisanimportanttransithub,commandingapproximatelyUSD117billion(UnitedStatesdollars)ofglobaltourismspending.Thisamountstocloseto7%ofaUSD1.7trillionindustry(UNWTO,2019),andinthepre-COVIDworldtheregionhadthefastestyear-over-yeargrowth,at7%.TheimpactofbusinessandtouristtravelinSoutheastAsiacontributesroughly12%totheregion’sgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)(Saberwal,2022),supportingmillionsofpeopledirectlyandindirectly.PolicydevelopmentintheEuropeanUnionisexpectedtohaveasignificantimpactonSoutheastAsia,giventhehighvolumeofflightsbetweenthetworegions.
Atthesametime,thecountriesthatmakeupSoutheastAsiahaveawiderangeofdevelopmentstatuses,withcountriesatdifferentspeedsandstagesofdevelopment.Thismakestheregionanimportantareatostudywithregardtotheimpactofthetransitiontowardssustainableaviationdevelopmentfordecarbonisation.
Thisreportprovidesanoverviewof,andperspectiveson,SAFdevelopmentinSoutheastAsia.ItfirstestimatesthepotentialvolumeofSAFthatcanbeproducedfromsustainablefeedstockintheregion,includingexploringenergycropproductiononunder-utilisedlow-carbonland.ThisisfollowedbyaneconomicassessmentofvariousICAO-approvedpathwaysthroughtechno-economicanalysisinselectedcountrieswithplannedSAFprojects.Thenextchapteranalysesthepolicyframeworkandinvestmentactivitieswithintheregion,andexploresstrategiestailoredtotherespectivecountries’resources.Finally,futureperspectivesregardingSAFinthecontextofenergytransition,theaviationsectorandSAFdevelopmentwithintheregionarepresentedasrecommendations.Notably,theresultspresentedinthisreportwerediscussedandreviewedbycountryrepresentativesandindustrialexpertsviaaseriesofworkshopsandinterviews.
AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
|11
1.
PRODUCTIONPOTENTIAL
1.1SCOPE
Technically,SAFcanbederivedfromarangeofbio-basedresourcessuchasvegetableoils,animalfats,carbohydrates,sugars,andresiduesandwastesfromagriculture,forestryandmunicipalsolidwaste(MSW).SoutheastAsia,withitsextensiveagricultureandforestrysectors,holdssubstantialpotentialforbio-basedfeedstock.Additionally,advancedfeedstockslikealgaearebeingexploredintheregionduetoitssuitablebiophysicalandclimaticconditions.Dependingonfeedstockcharacteristics,variousconversionprocessescanbeemployedtoproduceaviationfuelcompatiblewithexistingaircraft(ASTMD7566).
Asameanstodecarbonisetheaviationsector,SAFneedstopossessasignificantlylowercarbonfootprintifitistoserveasanalternativetoconventionaljetfuel.Achievingthislargelydependsonthetypeandsourceoffeedstock(ICAO,2024a).Tothisend,sustainabilitycriteriagoverningtheutilisationoffeedstockswereintroducedbyICAOintoCORSIA.Initially,thediscussionfocusedmainlyonvariousresiduesandwastestreams.Despitestudieshighlightingthepotentialandco-benefitsofmobilisingunder-utilisedlow-carbonland(DeCarvalhoetal.,2019;Jaungetal.,2018;McCormicketal.,2014),theuseofenergycropswaslargelyexcludedfrommajordiscussionsinthesector.However,inearly2024,aEuropeanCommissionreportemphasisedthatenergycropsdedicatedtobiofuelsgrownonmarginalorabandonedlandswillplayasignificantroleindecarbonisingtheaviationsector(EuropeanCommission:Directorate-GeneralforResearchandInnovation,2024).
Toprovideaholisticviewoffeedstockavailability,thisstudyconsiderstwobroadgroupsoffeedstocks,namelyi)residuesandwastesandii)energycropsfromunder-utilisedlow-carbonland.Intermsofgeographicalcoverage,SingaporeandBruneiDarussalamareexcludedfromthefeedstockanalysisduetotheircomparativelyloweragriculturaldevelopmentandlackofsignificantlandmass.However,bothcountriesareconsideredtobemajoroff-takersintheanalysisduetotheirpotentialdemandforSAF.
SUSTAINABLEAVIATIONFUELSINSOUTHEASTASIA
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1.2MATERIALSANDMETHODS
Residuesandwastes
Severalcategoriesofresiduesandwasteswereconsidered(Table1).Theestimationofthepotentialvolumesofagriculturalresidueswaslargelybasedonthatestablishedinthe2023IRENAreportAgriculturalresidue-basedbioenergy:Regionalpotentialandscale-upstrategies(IRENA,2023).Assumingtheyear2022asthebaselineyear,statisticaldatafromtheUnitedNationsFoodandAgricultureOrganization(FAOSTAT)(FAO,2023a)wasusedasthemainsourcetoobtaincropproductionvolumes.
Thedryweightofthecropresidueisfirstcalculatedbymultiplyingtheamountofcropproducedbytheresidue-to-cropratioandsubtractingthemoisturecontentofthecropresidue.Thetechnicalvolumeofbiomassfeedstockisthencalculatedbysubtractingthetheoreticalvolumewiththerecoveryrateandtheutilisationrateofthefeedstockinexistingcompetinguses,butdoesnotconsiderfuturecompetitionsfrom,e.g.shippingorbiocharapplications.Theresidue-to-cropratioofeachagriculturalbiomassandthemoisturecontentsoffeedstocksareobtainedfromthe2023IRENAreport(IRENA,2023)andcrossed-checkedwithliterature,assumingthesameratiosareapplicabletoallstudiedcountries.However,inthisstudy,therecoveryratesandutilisationratesassumedarefurtherrefinedspecifictoeachcountry.Theirvaluesweregatheredfromrespectivegovernmentpublicationsandexistingliteraturework,andrevisedbasedoninputsreceivedduringstakeholderconsultationsandexternalreviews.Forrecoveryratesandutilisationratesthatcouldnotbefoundineithertypeofsourcematerial,thesamevaluesusedinthe2023IRENAreport(IRENA,2023)wereusedasassumptions.
Table1Feedstocksconsidered
CATEGORY
FEEDSTOCK
Agriculturalresidues
Palmemptyfruitbunch(EFB),palmkernelshell(PKS),mesocarpfibre,sugarcanetops,bagasse,
molasses,ricestraw,ricehusk,coconuthusk,coconutshell,cornstover(stalk),corncob,cassavapeel,cassavastalk
Woodresidues
Woodresiduesfromprocessingmills
Wasteoils
Usedcookingoil(UCO),palmoilmilleffluent(POME)oil,palmfattyaciddistillate(PFAD)
Urbanwaste
Municipalsolidwaste(MSW)
ThevolumeforwoodresiduewasestimatedbasedondatafromFAOSTAT,definedaswoodwasteandscrapsuchassawmillrejects,labs,edgingsandtrimmings,veneerlogcores,veneerrejects,sawdust,andresiduesfromcarpentryandjoineryproduction.
ForUCO,thevolumewasestimatedbasedontheGREENEAAnalysisfor2019andthepopulationcensusinindividualcountriesin2022(BadanPusatStatistik,2022;DepartmentofStatisticsMalaysia,2024;GeneralStatisticsOffice,2022;NationalInstituteofStatisticsMinistryofPlanning,2021;NationalStatisticalOffice,2023).ThePOMEvolumegeneratedatthemillswasestimatedbasedonaresidue-to-cropratioof0.67(Kaniapanetal.,2021;Supriatnaetal.,2022),andtheoilfractionwasassumedtobe0.65%basedontheaverageof0.6-0.7%fromliterature(MohdPauzietal.,2023;Yeohetal.,2022).ThevolumeofPFADwas
AREGIONALPERSPECTIVEONBIO-BASEDSOLUTIONS
|13
estimatedbasedonaresidue-to-cropratioof3.5-5%(Neste,n.d.),andanassumedoilfractionof80%basedonanaverageof65-95%fromliterature(Rajoetal.,2020).
TheMSWrecoveryratewasbasedontheMSWcollectionratereportedbyreviewand/orresearcharticles.Forcountrieswithnodata,70.5%wasassumedbasedonregionalnumbers(Kojima,2019;UnitedNations,2023).
Energycropsfromunder-utilisedlow-carbonland
Thepotentialunder-utilisedlandineachcountrywasroughlyestima
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