人工智能和教育報告

EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork

Artificialintelligenceandeducation-ateacher-centredapproachtosafetyandhealth

Report

Artificialintelligenceandeducation-ateacher-centredapproachtosafetyandhealth

EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork-EU-OSHA2

Author:DrUlrikeBollmann,GermanSocialAccidentInsurance-EuropeanNetworkEducationandTraininginOccupationalSafetyandHealth(ENETOSH).

Projectmanagement:MaurizioCurtarelli,EmmanuelleBrun-EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork(EU-OSHA).

ThisreportwascommissionedbytheEuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork(EU-OSHA).Itscontents,includinganyopinionsand/orconclusionsexpressed,arethoseoftheauthorsaloneanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsofEU-OSHA.

NeithertheEuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWorknoranypersonactingonbehalfoftheAgencyisresponsiblefortheusethatmightbemadeofthefollowinginformation.

Luxembourg:PublicationsOfficeoftheEuropeanUnion,2024?EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork,2024

Reproductionisauthorisedprovidedthesourceisacknowledged.

ForanyuseorreproductionofphotosorothermaterialthatisnotunderthecopyrightoftheEuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork,permissionmustbesoughtdirectlyfromthecopyrightholders.

PDF|ISBN978-92-9402-333-9|doi:10.2802/80935|TE-05-24-649-EN-N

EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork–EU-OSHA3

TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary 5

1Introduction 8

1.1Researchquestions 8

1.2Structureofthereport 8

2DigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsectorinEurope 9

2.1Currentstateofuseofdigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsector 9

2.2Traditionaldigitaltechnologiesinschool 10

2.2.1AI-baseddigitaltechnologiesinschool 10

2.2.2Learninganalytics 10

2.2.3Intelligenttutoringsystems 11

2.2.4TheAIboom 12

3ThesurgeindigitalisationintheeducationsectorduetotheCOVID-19pandemicand

itsimpactonteachers 15

3.1Disruptionofeducation 15

3.2Adhocdigitalisation 15

3.3Rateofchangeindigitalisation 15

3.4Impactofthesurgeindigitalisationontheworkingconditionsofteachers 17

3.5Thedigitaldivide 17

3.6Impactsofthesurgeindigitalisationonthementalloadandstressexperiencedby

teachers 18

3.7Lessonsfromthepandemic 19

4Structuralmodeladdressingtheimpactofdigitalisationonteacherwellbeing 21

4.1Keytheoreticalmodels 21

4.2Impactofdigitalstressonteachers’health 22

4.3Factorsdeterminingteachers’digitalwellbeing 23

5OpportunitiesandrisksforteachersfromtheuseofAI-baseddigitaltechnologies 24

5.1GenAIopportunitiesandrisksandtheimpactonhealth,safetyandwellbeingof

teachers 24

5.2Factormodel 24

5.2.1Workload 25

5.2.2Autonomy 27

5.2.3Professionaldevelopment 29

5.2.4Ethics 34

5.2.5Regulatoryframework 36

5.2.6Costs 39

6Reflectionsonateacher-centredapproachtotheintegrationofAI-basedtechnologies

inschools 42

6.1Newrisksandpotentialforteachers 42

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6.2Strategiesandmeasuresforminimisingtherisksandexploitingthepotentialfor

teachers 45

6.2.1Europeanlevel 45

6.2.2Nationallevel 46

6.2.3Institutionallevel 47

6.2.4Teacherlevel 47

References 49

ListofTablesandFigures

Table1:Operationalisationoftheconceptualframeworkfortheassessmentofteachers’wellbeing

accordingtoViacandFraser 23

Table2:Descriptionofthesevenlevelsofautomationoftheworkofteachers 29

Table3:RisksandpotentialfromtheuseofAI-basedtechnologiesforteachers 43

Figure1:UseofdigitaltechnologiesbyEUworkers 9

Figure2:Frequencyofuseofdigitaltechnologiesinschoolsforteachingpurposes(EU,Germany–

2013,2018,2021-%) 16

Figure3:FactorsensuringsafeandhealthyuseofGenAI-basededucationaltechnologiesbyandfor

teachers 25

Figure4:ThesixcompetenceareasofDigCompEdu 31

Figure5:AIActRiskpyramid 37

EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork–EU-OSHA5

ExecutiveSummary

Introduction

Thisreportexaminestheopportunitiesandrisksassociatedwiththeintegrationofnewdigitaltechnologiesforthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersinschools.Thisisviewedbothfromtheperspectiveofoccupationalsafetyandhealth(OSH)andapedagogicalperspective.

Acomprehensiveoverviewofthepossiblerisksandopportunitiesforteachersfromtheintegrationoftechnologies,inparticularbasedonartificialintelligence(AI),isprovidedbasedonasystematicanalysis.Suggestionsarealsogivenofpotentialmeasuresforimprovingthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersinthedigitalage.

Background

TheEuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork(EU-OSHA)hasalreadysubmittedimportantfindingsfortheeducationsectorwiththepublicationof‘Education-evidencefromtheEuropeanSurveyofEnterprisesonNewandEmergingRisks(ESENER)(2022)’,‘OSHPulse-Occupationalsafetyandhealthinpost-pandemicworkplaces(2022)’andthereport‘MentalhealthatworkaftertheCOVID-19pandemic(2024)’.PublicationsarealsoavailablefromEU-OSHAspecificallyontheimpactofartificialintelligenceonOSH(2021;2022AIWM;2022AIWMRegulations).And,finally,theEU-OSHAcampaign‘Safeandhealthyworkinthedigitalage2023-2025’,whichisEurope-wide,providestheopportunitytofurtherexplorethetopicofhealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersinthedigitalage.

Afocusonteachers

Sofar,learnershavebeentheprimaryfocuswhenitcomestotheintegrationofdigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsector.Teachershavebeenviewed,ifatall,firstandforemostintheirroleasmediatorsandprimarilyasusersofdigitaltools.WithAI-basedtechnologiesmakingtheirwayintoschools,greaterattentionisnowalsobeingpaidtoteachers—nowintheirroleasthoseresponsiblefordeployingthesetechnologiesandforcopingwiththeirchallenges.

TheCOVID-19pandemic

TheCOVID-19pandemicwasthetriggerforaglobaldisruptionintheeducationsystemandanadhocsurgeindigitalisation,bringinganincreasedmentalloadandstressforteachers.Forteachersinparticular,thepandemicalsobroughtgreatuncertainty,increasedworkloadanddigitalstress,withbothcognitiveandemotionalelements.Schoolswerealsotestedasorganisations.The‘digitalmaturity’ofaschool,thatis,havingagooddigitalinfrastructurebutabovealltechnicalandpedagogicalsupportforteachers,andschoolprocessesfocusedondigitalteachingandlearning,contributedtolowerloadsandstressesbeingexperiencedbyteachers.

Evidenceofthefollowingstrainsonthedigitalwell-beingofteachersduringtheCOVID-19pandemichasbeenprovidedbyinitiallongitudinalstudies:uncertainty;ahighworkload,inparticularattheendofthepandemic;andthefeelingofbeingundervaluedasanoccupationalgroup.Resourcesemergedintheformoftheavailabilityofsocialsupport,theabilitytodetermineone’sownwork(workautonomy)andtheuseoffunctionalcopingstrategies.Newandyoungerteachersandthosewithpriorillnesseswereidentifiedasbeingparticularlyatrisk.InstitutionaldecisionsatschoollevelhaveakeyroletoplayintheperceivedwellbeingofteachersduringtheCOVID-19pandemic.

NewchallengesforteachersresultingfromtheuseofAI-baseddigitaltechnologiesinschools

BothtraditionaldigitaltechnologiesandAI-basedtechnologiescontributetogreaterflexibilityforteachers.Useofthesetechnologies,however,alsoincreasesthedemandsplacedonthetechnicalcompetenciesofteachers,ontheirmediaskillsintermsofdidacticsandtheirsocialcompetencies.Theuseoflearninganalyticsforteachingandlearningalsoimposesnewdemandsonteachers’competence.Thesearedemandsextendingbeyondtechnologicalknowledge,andconcerntheirpedagogicalandtechnologicaljudgement.ThedevelopmentofgenerativeAI(GenAI)andinparticularthearrivalofChatGPTinschoolsmeansteachersarenowalsofacedwithanewuncertainty:GenAIindependentlygeneratesnewcontentthatthenhastobeinterpretedanditsoriginexplained.

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NewrisksandopportunitiesfromtheuseofAI-baseddigitaltechnologiesforteachers

Thesixfactorsofworkload,autonomy,professionaldevelopment,ethics,regulativeframeworkandcostsareusedasthebasisforspecifyingthefollowingmainrisksandpotentialfortheuseofAI-baseddigitaltechnologiesforthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachers.

Risks

Lackoftransparency(andexplainability)ofAIsystemsincreasesthecognitiveload.

Digitalcontrolandsurveillanceusingreal-timedatacanaffectmentalhealth.

Human–robotcollaborationmayresultininteractionbeingremovedfromtheworkofteachers.

Atendencytowardsactinginmachine-readableform(‘promptengineering’).

AnexcessivetrustinAItechnology.

Therearealsogeneralchallengesinherentintechnology,suchas:

biasproblemsinherentinAI;

problemsof‘hallucination’;

lackoftechnicalreliabilityandaccuracyofAIsystems;and

riskofmisuseofAI.

Additionally,challengesfortheteachingprofessioninclude:

lossofspecificskills;

riskofdeprofessionalisation;

alackofvalidationofAI-basedsystemsforuseintheeducationsector;and

non-compliancewithdataprotectionwhenusingAI-basedtechnologiesintheeducationsector.

Opportunities

Toreduceteacherworkloadthereisneedfor:

reductioninworkloadforroutinetasks,suchasmarking;

supportwithlessonplanning,e.g.coursedevelopment;

reducedamountofworkandgreaterprecisionwhengrading;

supportwiththedevelopmentandimplementationofalternativeintegratedlearningscenarios,e.g.transdisciplinaryapproaches,verticalteaching,mixedclasses;

simplificationofresourceplanning(taskandtimeschedule)andoptimisationofworkorganisationintheschool;and

involvementofAI-basedsystemsintheschool’sriskassessment.

Toexpandthescopeofactionavailabletoteachers,recognisethat:

autonomyismaximisedwhenteachersmaintaincontrolinatransparentmannerovertheirentireworkprocess(‘human-in-command’approach);and

moretimeisneededforpedagogicaltasksandownprofessionaldevelopmentaswellasbeingcreativeordevelopingcreativity.

Tosupportteachers’professionaldevelopment,aimat:

easieraccesstoprofessionaldevelopmentforteachers;

greaterflexibilityintheuseoffurthertrainingandconsultationservices;

enablingnewformsofexchangebetweencolleagues,e.g.viaplatformsandeCommunities;and

enhancingoftheteachingprofessionasaresultofAIexpertise.

Strategiesandmeasuresforminimisingtherisksandexploitingtheopportunitiesforteachers

InordertouseAIintheeducationsector,whichisanareadefinedasahigh-riskone(EUAIAct),aproactivestrategymustbedevelopedwherethehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersandlearnersaregiventhehighestpriority.

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AI-basedtechnologiesmustbeintroducedgraduallyintotheeducationsystem.Indoingso,therisksandopportunitiesofAI-basedtechnologiesinrelationtothehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersmustbeconsidered.

ThedevelopmentofanAIschoolstrategyisanecessaryprerequisiteforthesafeandhealthyintegrationofAI-basedtechnologiesintoteachingandschooladministration.

TheconceptofAIliteracymustbeexpandedtoincludetheaspectsofhealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersandlearners.

Measuresmustbeofferedtosupportteachers,forexample,theself-managementofwellbeing,socio-emotionalsupportprogrammes,butalsomeasuressupportingrolerewardandtoincreasetheattractivenessoftheteachingprofession.

EuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork–EU-OSHA8

1Introduction

1.1Researchquestions

Whataretheopportunitiesandrisksassociatedwiththeintegrationofdigitaltechnologiesineducationandeverydayschoollifeintermsofthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachers?Howdoteachersandeducationalestablishmentsdealwiththechallengestheyfaceasaresultofrapidtechnologicaldevelopment?

Currentlytherearenosimpleorconclusiveanswerstothesequestions.Firstly,therateofdevelopmentofdigitaltechnologiesisfasterthantherateatwhichtheirintegrationwithintheeducationsectorcanbescientificallyevaluatedandconclusivelyassessed;secondly,thespeedofintegrationofdigitaltoolsvariesbycountryandeducationalfacility;andthirdly,itisstillunclearunderwhichconditionsdigitaltechnologiescontributetothequalityofeducationandwhethertheuseofnewdigitaltechnologieshasbeentestedforconsistencywitheducationalobjectives

.1

Whetherthefocusisonintegrationofdigitaltechnologiesineducationorevenondigitaleducation,attentionhassofarprimarilybeendirectedatthelearners,inotherwordspupilsandstudents.Sofar,teachershavebeenviewed,ifatall,firstandforemostintheirroleasmediatorsandthereforeprimarilyasusersofdigitaltools.Studiesexamininghowdigitaltechnologiesaffectteachers’health,safetyandwellbeingarerare

.2

Thisisalsothecaseforstudiesaddressingtheproactiveroleforteachersinshapingrelatedtechnologicaldevelopments

.3

Thisreportfocusesontheimpactofdigitalisationonteachersingeneraleducationschools.Toexploretheissueingreaterdepth,thesubjectisconsideredfrombothaneducationalaswellasanoccupationalsafetyandhealth(OSH)perspective.Duetothespeedoftechnologicaldevelopment,adistinctionisdrawnbetweentheuseoftraditionaldigitaltechnologiesandteachingandlearningtechnologiesbasedonartificialintelligence(AI).Theimpactoftraditionaldigitaltechnologiesonthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersisconsideredthroughthe‘lens’oftheCOVID-19pandemic;theintegrationofAI-basedtechnologiesineducation,thepotentialtheyofferandthechallengestheyposeforteachersareanalysedanddiscussedtothebestofcurrentknowledge.Atthetimeofpreparingthisreport,researchontheimpactofAIonthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachersisnotyetavailable.

1.2Structureofthereport

ThereportstartswithashortdescriptionofthecurrentstateofuseofdigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsectorinEurope(EU-27)(Chapter2).Followingthis,amorein-depthlookistakenatwhattriggeredtheglobalsurgeindigitalisationintheeducationsector,attheCOVID-19pandemicasanever-before-seendisruptiontotheeducationsystem,andatitsimpactonthehealth,safetyandwellbeingofteachers(Chapter3).Referenceismadetokeytheoreticalmodelsaswellastotheconceptsof‘digitalstress’andthe‘digitalwellbeing’ofteachers(Chapter4).ThepotentialandrisksforteachersassociatedwiththeuseofdigitaltechnologiesbasedonAIareanalysedonthebasisofsixfactors.Duetothedynamicnatureoftechnologicaldevelopment,particularlyintheareaofAI,thedescriptionheremustnecessarilyremainpartiallyincomplete(Chapter5).Theseventhandfinalchapterprovidesrecommendationsforateacher-centredapproachtotheintegrationofAI-basedtechnologiesinschools(Chapter6).

1EU-OSHAhasbeenworkingonsystematicallyintegrating(mainstreaming)occupationalsafetyandhealth(OSH)intoeducationsince2002.TheguidingprincipleofmainstreamingOSHintoeducationisthattheintegrationofsafetyandhealthintothecurriculaandtheworkingandlearningenvironmentofeducationalinstitutionscontributessignificantlytoimprovingthequalityofeducation.See:

https://osha.europa.eu/en/themes/mainstreaming-osh-education

2Since2020,therehasbeenanever-increasingnumberofpublicationsdedicatedtotheimpactoftheCOVID-19pandemicspecificallyonthementalhealthofteachers.Digitalisationisnotalwaysmentionedinthiscontext.SeetheliteraturestudybyDuarteSantiagoetal.(2023).Forthemostrecentliteraturestudyonthewellbeingofteachers,seeNwokoetal.(2023).

3See:Magnusson2023;Giannini2023.

2DigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsectorinEurope

2.1Currentstateofuseofdigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsector

AccordingtotheEuropeanSurveyofEnterprisesonNewandEmergingRisks(ESENER),theuseofdigitaltechnologiesintheeducationsectorisrelativelyhigh.Eighty-eightpercentofeducationalinstitutionsusestationaryPCsand83%uselaptops,smartphonesand‘othermobilecomputerdevices’(EU-OSHA2022ESENEREducation,67;cf.Vincent-Lancrinetal.2019,162).Intheclassroom,‘othermobilecomputerdevices’include,forexample,tablets,interactivewhiteboards,e-books,smartphonesanduseoftheinternetasameansofexchangingdataandinformation;theyarealsousedasanelementinthedigitalinfrastructureofaneducationalfacility(BitKom2023;Mu?mannetal.2021,98ff.).AccordingtotheESENERstudy,useofthedevicesinitiallyreferredtoaboverangesfrom71%inSwedento98%inHungary,andinthecaseofmobiledevicesfrom71%inItalyto100%inFinland.

AccordingtotheEuropeanAgencyforSafetyandHealthatWork’s(EU-OSHA)OSHPulse2022survey,59.7%offacilitiesintheeducationsectorhavehigh-speedbroadbandinternetaccess,whichisabovethecomparativefigureof55.2%forothersectors.

Figure1:UseofdigitaltechnologiesbyEUworkers

Base:allrespondents,EU-27(n=25,683)

Source:EU-OSHA2022OSHPulse

Alongsidepublicadministrationandfinancialservices,theeducationsectorinEuropealsohasthehighestprevalenceofemployeeswhooccasionallyorpartlyworkremotely(Eurofound2023,52).

DifferenceshowevercanbeidentifiedintheuseofdigitaltechnologiesforeducationalpurposesbetweenindividualcountriesorgroupsofcountriesinEurope,forexamplebetweenScandinaviancountries(withtheexceptionofNorway)andeasternEuropeancountries(withtheexceptionofHungaryandEstonia)(EU-OSHA2022;ESENER2019;Fraillon2020,190;seealsoUNESCO2023GEM,69).

ThefigureshoweveralsodocumentthatwhiletheuseofdigitaltechnologiesineducationalfacilitiesintheEU-27isrelativelywidespread,therearestillorganisationswhereuseofdigitaltoolsisnotthenorm(EU-OSHA2022ESENEREducation,67).

AccordingtoEU-OSHA’sOSHPulse2022,useofAI-basedtechnologiessuchaswearablesandrobotsisstillmuchlessinevidenceintheEU-27asawhole,butparticularlyintheeducationsector:discussionregardingrisksfromuseofthesetechnologiestohealth,safetyandwellbeingissomewhatdisproportionatetotheiruse.Forexample,accordingtotheESENERstudyfrom2019,ausagerateof8.7%forwearabledevicescomparestoavalueof50%whenitcomestodiscussionofthepotentialinfluenceofsmartwatches,smartglasses,activitytrackersorotherintegratedsensors(cf.EU-OSHAESENEREducation2022,79;EU-OSHA2022AIWM,15).

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Todate,thereareveryfewexamplesoftheuseofso-called‘socialrobots’inschoolsinEurope:theseincludeusefortheearlyacquisitionofasecondlanguageinapreschoolsettingintheNetherlandsandtheuseoftelepresencerobotsinNorwayandFranceforpupilswithlong-termillnesses(OECD2021,145,148;cf.HeinandNathan-Roberts2018;Anwar2019).

2.2Traditionaldigitaltechnologiesinschool

Digitaltechnologieshavebeenusedinschoolssincethe1980swhichsawtheemergenceofpersonalcomputersandso-callede-learningintheformof‘programme-basedlearning’(Auswald2023).Inthemid-1990s,theWorldWideWebwasmadeaccessibletothegeneralpublic.Virtuallyalldigitalapplicationsintheeducationsectorarebasedontheinternet.Theseincludelearningmanagementsystems(LMSs),openeducationalresources(OERs)andmassiveopenonlinecourses(MOOCs)(Weller2020,19)

.4

Theinternetenabledlearningplatformstobeintegratedinteaching,suchastheplatformMoodlethatwaslaunchedin2002.TheirLMSsgaveteacherstheopportunitytocreateandadministercoursesthatpupilscouldworkonindependently.Inthesameyear,thefirstOERwaspublished.TheOERapproachmeansthattrainingcontentiscreatedwithanopenlicencewhichmeansitisfreelyaccessibleandcanbeadapted.Itisintendedthatcontentshouldalsobefreeofchargeandreusable

.5

Thisincreasesteachers’flexibility,butatthesametimeitalsoincreasesthedemandsontheirtechnicalandmediacompetenciesinrelationtoteachingmethodology.

Around2006,attentionshiftedfromstaticwebsites,withtheusertakingmoreofapassiverole,toso-calledWeb2.0,wheretheusernotonlyconsumesthecontentanditischaracterisedby‘socialinteraction,user-generatedcontent,andsharing’.Servicesforuser-generatedcontentsuchasYouTube,FlickrandblogsaswellasTwitter(2006,namedXsince2023)emerge.ThemetamorphosisofWeb2.0intoplatformssupportingsocialmediashiftsthefocusontoproblemsassociatedwiththissuchasfreedomofspeechandabusivebehaviour(Weller2020,91ff.).Asaconsequence,theemotionalloadandstressonteachersincreases.

2.2.1AI-baseddigitaltechnologiesinschool

ThesubjectofAIisalsonotnewandisdiscussedfromtheverybeginninginrelationtoachangeinperceptionsofhumanthinking,learningandknowledge

.6

AIcanbedefinedas‘computingsystemswhicharecapableofengaginginhuman-likeprocessessuchaslearning,adapting,synthesising,self-correction,anduseofdataforcomplexprocessingtasks’(Salas-Pilcoetal.2022,2accordingtoPopeniciandKerr2017)

.7

2.2.2Learninganalytics

Withlearnersspendingincreasingtimeindigitallearningenvironments,interestgrowsindatagenerated,forexample,aspartofusinganLMS.Thedevelopmentofso-calledlearninganalytics(LA)datesbackto2011whenGeorgeSiemensorganisedthefirstLAconference.Atthisconference,LAwasdefinedas‘themeasurement,collection,analysis,andreportingofdataaboutlearnersandtheircontexts,forpurposesofunderstandingandoptimisinglearningandtheenvironmentsinwhichitoccurs’

4SirTimBerners-LeeinventedtheinternetatCERNin1989.By2010hehaddevelopedfourtechnologiesthatmadetheinternetworkandremainthebasisofittoday:HTML;URL;HTTP;Webbrowser(Weller2020,15f.).

5TheOpenCourseWare(OCW)Initiativewasstartedin2002byMIT(Weller2020,77).Tothisday,thelicensingissueisoneofthecriticalobstaclestotheuseofdigitaltechnologiesinschool(seealsoEU2023StakeholderConsultationGrouponDigitalEducationContentintheEU).Owingtotherapiddevelopmentandincreasingprovisionofopen(i.e.withoutaccessandadmissionrestrictions),freelyaccessibleonlinecourses,whichgenerallyhavealargenumberofparticipants,2012isdescribedasthe‘yearoftheMOOC’s’(Weller2020,129).(Wikipediaaccessed27February2024).

6Thequestion‘Cancomputersthink?’hasbeendiscussedinthisformsincethe1950s.AlanM.Turing,Englishmathematicianandleadingcomputertheorist,sparkedthisdebatewithhisarticle‘ComputingMachineryandIntelligence’(Turing1950).Theterm‘a(chǎn)rtificialintelligence’(AI)wascoinedin1956whenMarvinMinskyandJohnMcCarthyhostedtheDartmouthSummerResearchProjectonArtificialIntelligence(Sheikhetal.2023).SeymourPapertwasoneofthefirsttoaddresstheimpactofAIoneducation(Papert1980;seealsoBollmann1988andBollmann2001).

7TheofficialandcurrentdefinitionofAIfromtheOECDisasfollows:‘AnAIsystemisamachine-basedsystemthat,forexplicitorimplicitobjectives,infers,fromtheinputitreceives,howtogenerateoutputssuchaspredictions,content,recommendations,ordecisionsthatcaninfluencephysicalorvirtualenvironments.DifferentAIsystemsvaryintheirlevelsofautonomyandadaptivenessafterdeployment.

’https://oecd.ai/en/wonk/ai-system-definition-update

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(Siemens2013).ThisbeganthediscussionthatcontinuestodayaroundtheunderstandingandimpactsoftheuseofLAintheeducationsector.In2012,WolfgangGrellerandHendrikDrachslerdevelopedthefirstcomprehensiveframeworkmodelforLAwithsixinterdependentdimensions:stakeholders,objectives,data,instruments,externalconstraints,andinternallimitations.Thisframeworkmodeladdressesbothpupilsandteachersaswellastheschoolasaninstitution.Pupilsforexampleareabletocomparetheiroutcomewiththeoveralloutcomeofacourseorcanreceivepersonalisedrecommendationsforappropriatelearningresources,learningpathwaysorforpeerstudents.Teacherscanbeprovidedwithcoursemonitoringsystemsinformingthemofgapsinknowledgeforspecificpupilsandareabletomakeinformationavailabletosupportimprovedcurriculumdesignandspontaneousadaptations.Schoolscanmonitortheachievementofpupilsintermsofdrop-outandcompletionratesandinthiswayareabletoevaluatecoursesandoptimisecourseoutcomes(GrellerandDrachsler2012,46f.;seealso:Ebneretal.2020;RomeroandVentura2020