國外心理語言學(xué)課件19

PSY369:PsycholinguisticsLanguageComprehension:MeaningbeyondthewordAnnouncementsHomework5(aorb)duetodayDiscoursePsycholinguisticsTraditionalPsycholinguisticsDeterminingwhathappenswhenweunderstandsentencesBroaderViewHowweresolve/understandsentencesagainstthecurrentdiscourserepresentationSentencecomprehensionisaprocessthatanchorstheinterpretationofthesentencetotherepresentationofthepriortextProcessingDiscourseWhatisdiscourse?Thewaysthatweprocess(i.e.,comprehendandremember)unitsoflanguagelargerthanasentenceLectures,personalnarratives,expositorydiscourseUnitsofanalysislargerthanasentenceAppliestobothspokenandwrittenformsDiscourseprocessingissortoflikesyntacticprocessing–awayoforganizing/connectingthedifferentpiecesintolargerchunks.Herethechunksarelargerthansentences.BillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Towhomdoes“him”refer?BillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Towhomdoes“him”refer?BachBillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Towhomdoesthis“him”refer?BillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Towhomdoesthis“him”refer?BachagainBillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Towhomdoesthis“him”refer?Bach

againBillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”WhynotAbe?

Towhomdoesthis“him”refer?BachagainBillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”WhynotAbe?

Towhomdoes“he”refer?Bachagainorhim?Huh!?BillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”Huh!?BillandTedtraveledthroughtimeandspace.Billasked,“Dude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet.Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks!”“Excellent!Man,we’vegottogetthesedudesbacktoschoolbeforewegetthere.”O(jiān)hyeah,they’retimetravelers.

CharacteristicsofDiscourseLocalStructure(microstructure):TherelationshipbetweenindividualsentencesCohesionCoherenceGlobalStructure(macrostructure):TherelationshipbetweenthesentencesandourknowledgeoftheworldCharacteristicsofDiscourseLocalStructure(microstructure):TherelationshipbetweenindividualsentencesCohesionCoherenceGlobalStructure(macrostructure):TherelationshipbetweenthesentencesandourknowledgeoftheworldLocalStructure(microstructure):TherelationshipbetweenindividualsentencesCohesion

Doesthediscourse“sticktogether”?Interpretationofonesentencedependsonothersentences?CoherenceDoesthepassagemakesense?Logicalconsistencyandsemanticcontinuity?

CharacteristicsofDiscourseCharacteristicsofDiscourseCohesion:InterpretationofonesentencedependsonothersentencesReferentialCohesion(pronominal,demonstrative,comparative)“Dude,youshouldhearhimplay…”SubstitutionCohesion“We’vegottogetthesedudesbackto…”EllipsisCohesion(specialcaseofsubstitution,bysubstitutingnothing)ConjunctionCohesion(and,but,or,etc.)“Bachwasinthemusicstore,butIhaven’tfoundAbeyet”LexicalCohesion(reiteration,synonymy,hyponymy)Usethesameword,asimilarmeaningword,orwordfromdifferentcategorylevelTypesofReferentialCohesionTherelationshipbetweenthereferringexpression

andtheantecedent

createreferentialcohesionofdiscourseAnaphoricReferenceUsinganexpressiontoreferbacktosomethingpreviouslymentionedindiscourse“…Bachwasinthemusicstore…”“Dude,youshouldhearhimplay,herocks.”CataphoricReferenceUsinganexpressiontoreferforwardtosomethingthatiscomingupindiscourseDude,didyoufindhim?”

“Yeah,Bachwasinthemusicstore...”ComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDanemanandCarpenter(1980)SittingwithRichie,Archie,WalterandtherestofmygangintheGrillyesterday,Ibegantofeeluneasy.Robbiehadputadimeinthejukebox.Itwasblaringoneofthelatest“RockandRoll”favorites.Iwasstudying,inhorror,thereactionsofmyfriendstothemusic.Iwasespeciallyperturbedbytheexpressiononmybestfriend’sface.Waynelookedintenseandwaspoundingthetablefuriouslytothebeat.Now,Ilikemostofthethingsotherteenageboyslike.Ilikegirlswithsoftblondehair,girlswithdarkcurlyhair,infactallgirls.Ilikemilkshakes,footballgamesandbeachparties.Ilikedenimjeans,fancyT-shirtsandsneakers.ItisnotthatIdislikerockmusicbutIthinkitissupposedtobefunandnottakentooseriously.Andherehewas,“allshookup”andseriousoverthecrazymusic.Task:ReadingapassageandanswerquestionsaboutthereferentsofpronounsQuestion:Whowas“allshookup”andseriousoverthemusic?ComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDanemanandCarpenter(1980)SittingwithRichie,Archie,WalterandtherestofmygangintheGrillyesterday,Ibegantofeeluneasy.Robbiehadputadimeinthejukebox.Itwasblaringoneofthelatest“RockandRoll”favorites.Iwasstudying,inhorror,thereactionsofmyfriendstothemusic.Iwasespeciallyperturbedbytheexpressiononmybestfriend’sface.Waynelookedintenseandwaspoundingthetablefuriouslytothebeat.Now,Ilikemostofthethingsotherteenageboyslike.Ilikegirlswithsoftblondehair,girlswithdarkcurlyhair,infactallgirls.Ilikemilkshakes,footballgamesandbeachparties.Ilikedenimjeans,fancyT-shirtsandsneakers.ItisnotthatIdislikerockmusicbutIthinkitissupposedtobefunandnottakentooseriously.Andherehewas,“allshookup”andseriousoverthecrazymusic.Question:Whowas“allshookup”andseriousoverthemusic?Task:ReadingapassageandanswerquestionsaboutthereferentsofpronounsReadingSpanTestSmallerreadingspans=smallerworkingmemorycapacityManipulatedhowmanysentencesintervenedbetweenthepronoun‘he’andtheantecedent‘Wayne’ComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDanemanandCarpenter(1980)SittingwithRichie,Archie,WalterandtherestofmygangintheGrillyesterday,Ibegantofeeluneasy.Robbiehadputadimeinthejukebox.Itwasblaringoneofthelatest“RockandRoll”favorites.Iwasstudying,inhorror,thereactionsofmyfriendstothemusic.Iwasespeciallyperturbedbytheexpressiononmybestfriend’sface.Waynelookedintenseandwaspoundingthetablefuriouslytothebeat.Now,Ilikemostofthethingsotherteenageboyslike.Ilikegirlswithsoftblondehair,girlswithdarkcurlyhair,infactallgirls.Ilikemilkshakes,footballgamesandbeachparties.Ilikedenimjeans,fancyT-shirtsandsneakers.ItisnotthatIdislikerockmusicbutIthinkitissupposedtobefunandnottakentooseriously.Andherehewas,“allshookup”andseriousoverthecrazymusic.Question:Whowas“allshookup”andseriousoverthemusic?Task:ReadingapassageandanswerquestionsaboutthereferentsofpronounsResultsComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDanemanandCarpenter(1980)Conclusions:Thenumberofinterveningsentencesdoesn’tmatterforhighspanpeople,butdoesforlowspanComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDell,McKoonandRadcliff(1983)Theburglarsurveyedthegaragesetbackfromthestreet.Severalmilkbottleswerepiledatthecurb.Thebankerandherhusbandwereonvacation.Thecriminalslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.--OR--Thecatslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Task:Readingapassage,newwordpresentedevery250ms.(sentencesoneatatime,disappearedbeforenextsentence)anaphorNoanaphorWasthiswordpresented?Criticalword(referentoftheanaphor)BURGLARCompanionword:GARAGEControlword:BOTTLESAtthetestpositions,lookedforprimingofcritical,companion,andcontrolwordsThreetestpositions:justbefore,250,500,&1250msafterreferencepositionComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDell,McKoonandRadcliff(1983)Theburglarsurveyedthegaragesetbackfromthestreet.Severalmilkbottleswerepiledatthecurb.Thebankerandherhusbandwereonvacation.Thecriminalslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.--OR--Thecatslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Task:Readingapassage,newwordpresentedevery250ms.(sentencesoneatatime,disappearedbeforenextsentence)BURGLARGARAGEBOTTLESConclusions:AnaphorquicklyactivatesitsreferentFacilitation=noanaphorRT–anaphorRTComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDell,McKoonandRadcliff(1983)Theburglarsurveyedthegaragesetbackfromthestreet.Severalmilkbottleswerepiledatthecurb.Thebankerandherhusbandwereonvacation.Thecriminalslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Thecatslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Task:Readingapassage,newwordpresentedevery250ms.(sentencesoneatatime,disappearedbeforenextsentence)BURGLARGARAGEBOTTLESConclusions:AnaphorquicklyactivatesitsreferentAlsoactivatesotherconceptsinpropositionFacilitation=noanaphorRT–anaphorRTComprehendingAnaphoricReferencesDell,McKoonandRadcliff(1983)Theburglarsurveyedthegaragesetbackfromthestreet.Severalmilkbottleswerepiledatthecurb.Thebankerandherhusbandwereonvacation.Thecriminalslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Thecatslippedawayfromthestreetlamp.Task:Readingapassage,newwordpresentedevery250ms.(sentencesoneatatime,disappearedbeforenextsentence)BURGLARGARAGEBOTTLESConclusions:AnaphorquicklyactivatesitsreferentAlsoactivatesotherconceptsinpropositionThereferentremainsactiveforawhile,buttheotherconceptsdon’tFacilitation=noanaphorRT–anaphorRTCharacteristicsofDiscourseCoherence:Given/newdistinctionReadersexpectspeakerstoprovidecuesastowhatinformationisold(alreadyknownbythelistener)andwhatisnew(notknown)MakingInferencesFillinginmissingpiecesofinformationtomaintaincoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Singer,Halldorson,Lear,&Andrusiak(1992)DevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Processofunderstandingasentenceindiscoursecontextinvolves3stages:IdentifythegivenandnewinfointhecurrentsentenceFindanantecedentinmemoryforthegiveninformationAttachthenewinformationtothisspotinmemoryDevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Wegotsomebeeroutofthetrunk.Thebeerwaswarm.Task:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.DevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Wegotsomebeeroutofthetrunk.Thebeerwaswarm.Definitearticle“The”signalsthat“Thebeer”isgiveninformationTask:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.DevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Wegotsomebeeroutofthetrunk.Thebeerwaswarm.Definitearticle“The”signalsthat“Thebeer”isgiveninformationConnectthenewinformation“waswarm”totheappropriatediscourseconcept“somebeer”ThisprocessiscalledDirectMatchingTask:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.Task:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.DevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Wecheckedthepicnicsupplies.Thebeerwaswarm.Definitearticle“The”signalsthat“Thebeer”isgiveninformationConnectthenewinformation“waswarm”totheappropriatediscourseconcept“??”WorldknowledgeTask:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.DevelopingcoherenceHavilandandClark(1974)Wecheckedthepicnicsupplies.Thebeerwaswarm.Definitearticle“The”signalsthat“Thebeer”isgiveninformationConnectthenewinformation“waswarm”totheappropriatediscourseconcept“picnicsupplies”Needabridginginferencetoconnect“thewarmbeer”to“picnicsupplies”WorldknowledgeDirectMatchingBridgingInferenceDevelopingcoherenceTypicalresultsComprehendedfasterTakesmoretimeWecheckedthepicnicsupplies.Thebeerwaswarm.Wegotsomebeeroutofthetrunk.Thebeerwaswarm.HavilandandClark(1974)WorldknowledgeTask:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence.Conclusion:Ifyoudon’tknowtheoldinformationandneedtomakeaninference,thismayslowdowncomprehension.“Murraypouredwateronthefire.”“Thefirewentout.”Singer,Halldorson,Lear,&Andrusiak(1992)“Murraydrankaglassofwater.”“Thefirewentout.”T/F

“waterextinguishesfire”T/F

“Doeswaterextinguishfire?”CausalconditionRequiresbridginginferenceTemporalconditionNorequiredinferenceDevelopingcoherenceResultsTask:Pressabuttonwhenyouunderstandthesentence,ifgivenaquestion,answerYesorNo.Conclusions:SuggeststhatthebridginginferencewasmadeMoretimeconsumingtomakecoherenceoftemporalthancausalrelationsFasterreadingtimeFaster“T”BriefsummaryLocalStructure(microstructure):Discourseiscoherentifitselementsareeasilyrelated.Coherenceisachievedwithcohesivetiesbetweensentences.ComprehensionisimpededwhenTherearenoantecedents,forcingabridginginferenceTheantecedentwasnotrecent,forcingareinstatementoftheantecedent.CharacteristicsofDiscourseLocalStructure(microstructure):TherelationshipbetweenindividualsentencesCoherenceCohesionGlobalStructure(macrostructure):TherelationshipbetweenthesentencesandourknowledgeoftheworldCharacteristicsofDiscourseGlobalStructure(macrostructure):Jillboughtanewsweater.Sweatersaresometimesmadeofwool.Woolproductiongivessomefarmersagoodlivelihood.Farmingisahigh-riskbusiness.Onthenewslastnight,Isawagroupofbusinessexecutivesdiscussingrecenttrendsinthestockmarket.TherelationshipbetweenthesentencesandourknowledgeoftheworldOkaylocalstructure,buteachsentenceisn’trelevanttoanoveralltopicofdiscourseCharacteristicsofDiscourseReadstorytoclass(fromBartlett,1932)CharacteristicsofDiscourseGlobalStructure(macrostructure):Schemas(Scripts)GeneralknowledgestructuresforcommonsocialsituationsGenresNarrativestructureStorygrammars-extensionofideaofgrammaticalrules,specifytheorganizationofastoryExpositorystructureDifferentstructuresCharacteristicsofDiscourseGlobalStructure(macrostructure):Schemas(Scripts)GeneralknowledgestructuresforcommonsocialsituationsGenresNarrativestructureStorygrammars-extensionofideaofgrammaticalrules,specifytheorganizationofastoryExpositorystructureDifferentstructuresEffectsofworldknowledgeIftheballoonspooped,thesoundwouldnotbeabletocarrysinceeverythingwouldbetoofarawayfromthecorrectfloor.Aclosedwindowwouldalsopreventthesoundfromcarryingsincemostbuildingstendtobewellinsulated.Sincethewholeoperationdependsonasteadyflowofelectricity,abreakinthemiddleofthewirewouldalsocauseproblems.Ofcoursethefellowcouldshout,butthehumanvoiceisnotloudenoughtocarrythatfar.Anadditionalproblemisthatastringcouldbreakontheinstrument.Thentherecouldbenoaccompanimenttothemessage.Itisclearthatthebestsituationwouldinvolvelessdistance.Thentherewouldbefewerpotentialproblems.Withfacetofacecontact,theleastnumberofthingscouldgowrong.Bransford&Johnson(1972)EffectsofworldknowledgeRockyslowlygotupfromthemat,planninghisescape.Hehesitatedamomentandthought.Thingswerenotgoingwell.Whatbotheredhimmostwasbeingheld,especiallysincethechargesagainsthimhadbeenweak.Heconsideredhispresentsituation.Thelockthatheldhimwasstrongbuthethoughthecouldbreakit.Heknew,however,thathistimingwouldhavetobeperfect.Andersonetal(1977)ORWrestlingmatchPrisonescapeEffectsofworldknowledgeEverySaturdaynight,fourgoodfriendsgettogether.WhenJerry,Mike,andPatarrived,Karenhadjustfinishedwritingsomenotes.Shequicklyarrangedthecardsandstooduptogreetherfriendsatthedoor.Theyfollowedherintothelivingroomandsatdownfacingeachother.Theybegantoplay.Karen'srecorderfilledtheroomwithsoftandpleasantmusic.Herhandflashedinfrontofeveryone'seyesandtheyallnoticedherdiamonds.Theycontinuedformanyhoursuntileveryonewasexhaustedandquitesilly.Jerrymadehisfriendslaughashetheatricallytookabow,entertainingthemallwiththewildnessofhisplaying.Finally,Karen'sfriendswenthome.Andersonetal(1977)PlayingmusicPlayingcardsEffectsofworldknowledgeSchemas(Scripts)Mentalstructuresofhowtheworldworks,acquiredthroughexperience

AwholepackageofinformationaboutwhatweknowabouttheworldandeventsGenericstoryofsituationsAframeworkwithcausalinformationUsedtofacilitatecomprehensionofdiscourse,aswellastoguiderecall(andreconstruction)EffectsofworldknowledgeSchemas(Scripts)GenericstoryofsituationsGoinsideGototableSitdownScene1:EnterScene2:OrderGetmenuReadmenuChoosefoodGiveorderScene3:EatGetfoodEatfoodScene4:PayAskforcheckReceivedcheckTipwaiterPaycheckExitRestaurantScriptEffectsofworldknowledgeSchemas(Scripts)Genericstoryofsituations73%ofrespondentsreportedthesecommoneventswhengoingtoarestaurant:SitdownLookatmenuOrderEatPaybillLeave48%alsoincluded:EnterrestaurantGivereservationnameOrderdrinksDiscussmenuTalkEatappetizerOrderdessertEatdessertLeaveatipBower,Black,andTurner(1979)EffectsofworldknowledgeBartlett(1932)Task:ReadnativeAmericanfolktaleWritedowneverythingthatyoucanrememberfromthatstorythatIreadearlierBartletthadthemrecallafteralongerperiodsoftime(between15mins.Upto10yearslater)EffectsofworldknowledgeBartlett(1932)Conclusions:WeuseourSchematofacilitatecomprehensionofdiscourse,aswellastoguiderecall(andreconstruction)Results:Participants’memorieschangedtofittheirexistingbeliefs(reconstructivememories)NormalizationsAddednewdetailsChangeddetailsOmissionsDeleteddetailsProportionsoftextpropositionsrecalledaftervaryingretentionintervals(adaptedfromBergman&Roediger,1999)EffectsofworldknowledgeInvernizzi&Abouzeid(1995)ReadtwoEuropeantales(crywolf&stonesoup)2audiencesEuropeanNorthAmericanchildrenPonamchildren(NewGuinea)EffectsofworldknowledgeInvernizzi&Abouzeid(1995)RetellingofboywhocriedwolfPonamchildren(NewGuinea)OnceuponatimeKalaiandhisfamilytheylivedonanisland.Kalai’smotheralwayscarriedhimeverywhere.OnedayKalai’smotherandfatherwentoutfishing.Kalai’smothersaid,“Kalai,youaretoosmalltogooutfishinginthesea.Youshouldstayhomewithyourgrandfather.”Kalaiwaslonelyonthebeach.Kalaisaid,“HowcouldIgetmyfamilyhome?”Hesatdownanddecidedtogethisfamilyhome.Hegothisredlaplapandrandowntothebeachandwavedhislaplaptohisfamilyandsaid,“Fire,fire.”Hisbrothersawhislaplapandwenthome.Whentheyarrivedtheysawnothing.EffectsofworldknowledgeInvernizzi&Abouzeid(1995)RetellingofboywhocriedwolfEuropeanNorthAmericanchildrenKalaiwasrunningupanddownthebeachyelling“Fire,fire.”Everybodycamehome.Thenextdaythesamethinghappened.Theycamehome.Thenextdaycame,butthehousecaughtonfire.Heranupanddownthebeach,butnobodycame.Kalaikeptwavingtheflag.Nobodycame.Suddenlytheysawtheflamesandthesmokeandtheycame,butitwastoolate.Everythinghadburntdowntotheground,andhisbrothertoldhimifhekepttellingliesthatnobodywillcomewhenyoucallforhelp.EffectsofworldknowledgeInvernizzi&Abouzeid(1995)ImpactofdifferentschemataEuropeanNorthAmericanchildrenSetting,precipitatingevents,goalreachingaspects,storyresolutionsPonamchildren(NewGuinea)Recalledfactualdetailaboutsettings,events,andoutcomes,butleavingoutthingslikeconsequence,resolution,moral(generallyseemedtomissthepoint)Conclusions:Weuseourculturalschemastofacilitatecomprehensionofdiscourse,aswellastoguiderecallEffectsofworldknowledgeSmithandSwinney(1992)Task:presentedstories(likethe“balloons”one)CollectedsentencebysentencereadingtimesHadthemrecallthesentencesSomepeopleweregivenatitleforthestory,othersnotWhendoweusetheschema?Duringcomprehensionorrecall?Results:Overall,readingtimeswerefasterwithatitlethatwithoutStorieswithtitles:Morewordswererecalledandmore“intrusions”(detailsconsistentwiththeschemabutnotinthestory)Conclusions:Schemasareusedinbothon-linecomprehensionandrecallEffectsofworldknowledgeSummaryWeuseschemastoFacilitatethecomprehensionofdiscourseToguiderecall(andreconstruction)EffectsofGenreNotallkindsofdiscoursefollowthesamestructureDifferenteffects,purposes,etc.ExpositorydiscourseConveyinfoaboutasubject(e.g.,textbook,lecture)NarrativediscourseTellastory:Introducecharacters&settings,establishagoal,etc.APAstyleNewspaperarticlesExpositoryStructureReadingtexts,listeningtolectures,etc.Organizedwithdifferentrelationships(butcanstilldrawatreestructure)RelationshipsCollection-ideasoreventsrelatedonthebasisofsomecommonalityCausation-ideasarejoinedcausallysothatoneideaisidentifiedastheantecedentandanotherastheconsequenceResponse-ideasarejoinedinaproblem/solutionorquestion/answerrelationshipComparison-ideasarerelatedbypointingoutsimilaritiesanddifferencesDescription-generalideasareexplainedbygivingattributesorotherspecificdetailsNarrativestructureOncetherewasawoman.Shesawatiger’scave.Shewantedatiger’swhisker.Sheputfoodinfrontofthecave.Thetigercameout.Shepulledoutawhisker.Thestoryhasastructure,astorygrammarNarrativestructureStorygrammar-candepictwithatreestructureStorySettingEpisodeEventReactionGoalOvertResponseActionConsequenceEventEventOncetherewasawoman.Shesawatiger’scave.Shewantedatiger’swhisker.Sheputfoodinfrontofthecave.Thetigercameout.Shepulledoutawhisker.NarrativestructureThorndyke(1977)LeveleffectReadmoreslowlybutarebetterremembered.Shewantedatiger’swhisker.Thetigercameout.HighhierarchystatementsLowerinthehierarchy.Comprehensibilityandrecallweretiedtoinherentplotstructure,independentofpassagecontentCharacteristicsofDiscourseTesttoseeifstructureeffectswhetherinferencesaremadeTask:ThinkaloudtaskReadthroughthestoryaloud(onesentenceatatime)andtalkaloudabouttheirunderstandingofthatsentenceTrabasso&Suh(1993)Trabasso&Suh(1993)SequentialversionOncetherewasagirlnamedBetty.Oneday,Bettyfoundthathermother’sbirthdaywascomingsoon.Bettyreallywantedtogivehermotherapresent.Bettywenttothedepartmentstore.Bettyfoundaprettypurse.Bettyboughtthepurse.Hermotherwasveryhappy.Severaldayslater,Bettysawherfriendknitting.Bettywasgoodatknitting.Bettydecidedtoknitasweater.Bettyselectedapatternfromamagazine.Bettyfollowedtheinstructionsinthearticle.Finally,Bettyfinishedabeautifulsweater.Bettypressedthesweater.Bettyfoldedthesweatercarefully.Bettyputitintheclosetforthenexttimeshewasgoingout.Berrywasveryhappy.Bettyfoundthateverythingwastooexpensive.Bettycouldnotbuyanything.Bettyfeltsorry.Bettygavethesweatertohermother.Hermotherwasexcitedwhenshesawthepresent.HierarchicalversionHowdoesthissentenceconnectupwiththerestofthestory?Trabasso&Suh(1993)HierarchicalversionBettywasgoodatknitting.Bettydecidedtoknitasweater.Bettyselectedapatternfromamagazine.Bettyfollowedtheinstructionsinthearticle.Finally,Bettyfinishedabeautifulsweater.Bettypressedthesweater.Bettyfoldedthesweatercarefully.Bettygavethesweatertohermother.Hermotherwasexcitedwhenshesawthepresent.SGAAOAAORSEGAOORES=SettingE=EventR=ReactionG=GoalO=OvertResponseA=ActionOncetherewasagirlnamedBetty.Oneday,Bettyfoundthathermother’sbirthdaywascomingsoon.Bettyreallywantedtogivehermotherapresent.Bettyw