WTO糧食和糧食非法貿(mào)易欺詐報告

WORLDTRADE

ORGANIZATION

Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud

AbouttheWTO

TheWorldTradeOrganizationistheinternationalbody

dealingwiththeglobalrulesoftradebetweennations.

Itsmainfunctionistoensurethattradeflowsassmoothly,

predictablyandfreelyaspossible,withalevelplayingfield

forallitsmembers.

ILLICITTRADEINFOODAND

Contents

Acknowledgements

Foreword

Executivesummary

Introduction

1.Addressingillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud

DoaaAbdel-Motaal

(WTO-AgricultureandCommoditiesDivision)

2.WTOrulebookandcombatingillicittradein

foodandfoodfraud

GabrielleMarceau

(WTO-EconomicResearchandStatisticsDivision)

3.Mappingthenegativeimpactsofillicittradein

agri-foodandbeveragesagainsttheUnitedNations

SustainableDevelopmentGoals

JeffreyHardy

(TransnationalAlliancetoCombatIllicitTrade)

4.Regulatorysolutionsandfoodsystemsthinkingto

counterfoodfraudinsupplychains

MaximoTorero

(FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations)

FOODFRAUD

3

4

6

8

10

22

36

48

CONTENTS

1

2

5.Asnapshotofillegalpracticesinthetradeinseeds

andassociatedchallenges

MichaelKellerandSzonjaCs?rg?

(InternationalSeedFederation)

6.Protectingtheinternationalfoodsupplychain

fromfraud

QuincyLissaur

(SSAFE)

7.Bringingcriminaljusticetoillicittradeinfood

andfoodfraud

AntoniaMarieDeMeoandMarcoMusumeci

(UnitedNationsInterregionalCrimeandJusticeResearchInstitute)

Conclusions

Abbreviations

58

68

76

86

88

ILLICITTRADEINFOODANDFOODFRAUD

Acknowledgements

ThispublicationisthefirstWTOpublicationonillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud.Itincludescontributionsfrom

participantsintheWTO’sAnnualAgricultureSymposium,heldon11and12December2023,whichexploredthistopic.TheSymposiumwasorganizedbytheAgricultureandCommoditiesDivisionwiththecooperationof

theOfficeoftheDeputyDirector-GeneralJean-MariePaugam.Theleadauthor,whoalsoconceptualizedthe

Symposiumandthispublication,wasDoaaAbdel-Motaal,SeniorCounselloroftheAgricultureandCommodities

Division.ShewasassistedbyXiaoluZhu,LegalAffairs

OfficeroftheAgricultureandCommoditiesDivision.

Commentsweregratefullyreceivedfromstaffmembers

whopeerreviewedthispublication.TheWTOisgratefultoallparticipantsattheSymposiumandinparticularthosewhosubmittedchaptersforthispublication.

Disclaimer

Theopinionsexpressedinthispublicationarethoseoftheauthors.TheydonotrepresentthepositionsoropinionsoftheWTOoritsmembersandarewithoutprejudicetomembers’rightsandobligationsundertheWTO.Anyerrorsareattributabletotheauthors.ThedesignationsemployedinthispublicationandthepresentationofmaterialthereindonotimplytheexpressionofanyopinionwhatsoeveronthepartoftheWTOconcerningthelegalstatusofanycountry,areaorterritoryorofitsauthorities,orconcerningthe

delimitationofitsfrontiers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS3

4

Foreword

TheWTOhaslongbeencommittedtothefightagainstillicittrade,whichundermineslegitimatebusinessactivity,fosterscorruptionanddeniesgovernmentspotentialtaxrevenueneededto

improvesocioeconomicconditions.Underthe

leadershipofDirector-GeneralOkonjo-Iweala,theWTOSecretariathasbeenexamininghowWTOruleshelpmemberstoresolvesomeofthechallengesposedbysuchillicittrade.

Illicittradeandfraudintheagri-foodsectorhas

awiderangeofimpactsonvariousstakeholders,includingconsumers,farmers,agri-businesses,

regulatorsandotheroperatorswithinthefood

industry.Althoughtheglobalcostoffraudtothefoodindustryisdifficulttodeterminegiventhe

clandestinenatureoftheactivity,annualestimatesareintherangeofUS$30-50billion(whichdoesnotincludelossesassociatedwithillicittradein

alcoholicbeverages).

Theimpactscanbefarreachingandaffect

differentaspectsofsocietyandtheeconomy.

Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudincurseconomiclossestolegitimatebusinessesthroughthelossofsalesandconsumerconfidence.Governmentsnotonlylosevaluablerevenuefromtaxevasion

butalsoincurcostsinthefightagainstcounterfeitcrimeandsmuggling.

Fraudulentandfakefoodandbeverages

damagepublichealthandsafety.Adulteratedorcontaminatedfoodproductscanposeserioushealthriskstoconsumersandcanhavedeadlyconsequences.Evencounterfeitproducts

whichcausenoharm–butfailtocontainthe

ingredientsadvertised–defraudcustomersanderodeconsumertrustinthefoodsupplychain.

Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudcancreate

anunfaircompetitiveadvantageforfraudulent

operators,disruptfoodsupplychainsandplace

legitimatebusinessesataseveredisadvantage.

Itcanraisethecostoftradebynecessitating

evergreatercontrols,whichcanleadtosweeping

tradebarriers.Moreover,legitimateproductscan

beinadvertentlyensnaredinregulatoryeffortsto

eradicatetradeinfraudulentfoods.

Addressingfoodfraudiscrucialtoensurethe

safety,integrityandfairnessoftheglobalfood

supplychain–allofwhicharecriticaltoachievingtheUnitedNationsSustainableDevelopment

Goals.Acomprehensiveresponserequiresa

combinationofregulatorymeasures,enforcement,industrycooperationandconsumereducation.

Thispublicationexplorestheseissuesandthe

roleoftheWTOrulebooktocombatillicittradein

foodandfoodfraud.

TheWTOrulebookprovidesmemberswitha

rangeoflegalinstrumentsthatcanhelptocombat

illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud.Ofparticular

importancetofoodsafetyaretheWTOAgreement

ontheApplicationofSanitaryandPhytosanitary

Measures,whichallowsWTOmembersto

regulatefoodimportsbasedonscienceandrisk

assessmenttechniques,andtheAgreementon

TechnicalBarrierstoTrade,whichalsoallows

memberstoaddressdeceptivepractices.

OtherWTOagreementsarealsorelevantand

arecoveredinthispublication.Forinstance,the

fullutilizationoftheWTO’sTradeFacilitation

Agreementwouldhelptoeliminateexcessively

cumbersomecustomsproceduresandredtapeat

bordersthatpresentopportunitiesforexploitation

ILLICITTRADEINFOODANDFOODFRAUD

FOREWORD5

bycriminals.Inaddition,theAgreementontheTrade-RelatedAspectsofIntellectualPropertyRightsservesasavitaltoolformembersin

tacklingcounterfeitfoodandbeverages.

TherecentlyconcludedWTOAgreementon

FisheriesSubsidiesprohibitssupportforillegal,unreportedandunregulated(IUU)fishing,

subsidiesforfishingoverfishedstocksand

subsidiesforfishingontheunregulatedhigh

seas.Itisestimatedthateveryyear,IUUfishinggenerates8-14milliontonnesofillegallytradedfishproducts,worthUS$9-14billion.Withover3.3billionpeoplearoundtheworldobtaining

atleast20percentoftheirdailyanimalproteinintakefromfish,theAgreementthusrepresentsamilestoneinthefightagainstillicittradeinfood.

Thispublicationdrawsontheexpertiseofa

diverserangeoforganizations,includingthe

FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),theInternationalSeedFederation(ISF),SSAFE–anon-profitorganizationfor

foodsafety,theTransnationalAlliancetoCombatIllicitTrade(TRACIT)andtheUnitedNations

InterregionalCrimeandJusticeResearchInstitute(UNICRI).Thesevaluablecontributions,andthedifferentapproachestheorganizationstake,willhelptoprovidenewareasfordiscussionand

potentialactionstheWTOcantakeintacklingillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud.

InreferencetotheimportantroletheWTO

rulebookhasinthefightagainstillicittradein

medicalproducts,Director-GeneralOkonjo-Iwealaspokeofthe“doubledividend”thatcomesfromstrengtheningmembers’capacitytofightillicit

tradewhilealsoexpandinglegitimatetrading

opportunitiesandbuildingresiliencewithinthemultilateraltradingsystem.Thispublicationwillhelpdeepenourunderstandingofillicittradeinagri-foodandmoveusclosertoachievingthe

doubledividendintheagri-foodsectortoensurethattradecontributestostrengtheningglobal

foodsecurity.

Q-

Jean-MariePaugam

WTODeputyDirector-General

Executivesummary

Internationaltradehashelpedtoreduceglobalhunger,butfoodfraudisagrowingproblem

Accesstohealthy,affordablefoodisaprerequisiteforimprovingthelivesofthepoorest.Internationaltradehashelpedtoreducebothglobalpovertyandhunger.However,theresultingcomplexityoffoodsupply

chainsmakescombatingillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudmuchharder.Increasedinterconnectivityof

supplychainsandgreaterdistancesbetweenwherefoodisgrownandwhereitisconsumedprovide

moreopportunitiesforillegalactivities.

Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudinflict

considerabledamagetointernationaltradeandpublichealth

Theillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudincludesthebuyingandsellingofproductstobeeaten,drunk

orgrownthatarenotwhattheyareclaimedtobe,thatfailtocomplywithhealthandotherregulations(e.g.onquality)andthataresmuggledorotherwiseproducedortradedoutsidethelegitimatemarket

framework.Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudinflictconsiderabledamagetointernationaltradeand

publichealth.

Illicittradeinfoodunderminesinternationaltradebydistortingmarkets,erodingconsumerconfidence

andtriggeringtheimpositionoftradebarriersduetosafetyconcerns.Simultaneously,itposessignificantpublichealthrisksthroughthedistributionof

counterfeitorsubstandardproducts,contributingtothespreadofdiseasesandcreatingchallengesforregulatoryenforcementonaglobalscale.Theconsumptionofcontaminated,counterfeitedor

adulteratedfoodproductscanresultinmalnutritionandevendeath.

Illicittradeinfoodunderminesglobalfood

securityandagri-foodvaluechains

Illicittradeinfooddisruptslegitimatesupplychains

andlimitsaccesstofoodsbyreducingavailability

andincreasingprices.Itunderminesfairmarketsand

reducesincomeforlegitimateproducers,withthe

mostvulnerablecommunitiesaffectedthegreatest.

Theimpactofillicittradeinseedsandseedfraud

canbesignificantforfarmers,theagri-foodvalue

chainandhenceglobalfoodsecurity.Illegalseed

practicesalsodiscourageinnovation.Theintegrity

oftheseedsectorcanbestrengthenedthrough

theprotectionofintellectualpropertyrightsand

enhancingenforcementtoensurethatfarmershave

accesstoreliable,high-qualityseeds.

TheWTOrulebookbringsalegalframework

tointernationaltradeinfood,helpingto

combatillicittrade

TheWTOagreementscanbeusedinthefight

againstillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud,in

particulartheAgreementontheApplicationof

SanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasuresandthe

AgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTrade.TheWTOrulebookbringsalegalframeworktotheinternationaltradeinfood,helpingtocombatillicittrade.

TheWTOhasauniqueroleinpromotingopenand

legaltrade.WTOrulesenablememberstoexercise

controlovertheirbordersandenforcetheirtrade

laws,leavinglessroomforillegaltrade.

6

ILLICITTRADEINFOODANDFOODFRAUD

Reducingimportandexportrestrictionscoulddiminishincentivesforsmugglingandillicit

tradeinfood

Thesmugglingofagricultureproductsisdriven

byadisparitybetweenthepriceofagoodatits

originanditsdestination,whichcanincludeprice

differentialsderivingfromgovernmentsubsidies.

TheongoingWTOagriculturenegotiations,which

aimtosimplifytariffstructures,toreduceexcessivelyhightariffsandtrade-distortingsubsidiesandto

addressimportandexportrestrictions,couldreducetheincentivesforsmugglingandillegaltrade.

ThefullutilizationoftheWTO’sTradeFacilitation

Agreementwouldalsohelptoeliminateexcessivelycumbersomecustomsproceduresandredtape

atborders,whichcanpresentopportunitiesforfraudstersandsmugglerstoexploit.

Modernfoodsafetylegislationcanminimizethepotentialforfraudsterstoexploitgapsinthefoodsupplychain

Modernfoodsafetylegislationoffersmany

possibilitiestocounterfoodfraud.Regulationsonthedetection,prevention,mitigationandcontrol

offoodfraudcanhelptoprotectthehealthof

consumersandtoensurefairpracticesinfoodandfeedtrade.Suchlegislationwhichtakesaholisticapproachtothefoodchainwillleavefewgapsforfraudsterstoexploit.

Timely,thoroughinvestigationscandisruptillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud

notonlyidentifyillicitactors,uncoverfraudand,

mostimportantly,exposeanyriskstopublichealth

andsafetybutalsodeterfutureillegalactivities.

Investigationscanwarnthepublicaboutcurrent

dangersandpreventfraudulentfoodfrombeing

consumedunwittingly.Customsauthoritieshavea

keyroletoplayincombatingfraud.

Public–privatecollaborationandinternationalcooperationcanhelptocombatillicittrade

infood

Newfoodproductsandfoodproductionmethods

demandnewanalyticalandenforcementcapacities

andposeasyetunknownchallenges.Public–

privatecollaborationbetweenthefoodindustryand

consumerorganizations,togetherwithinternational

cooperation,canhelptoaddressillegalactivities.

Thepreventionoffraudisamorecost-effective

strategythanstoppingillicittradeinfoodonceit

isalreadyunderway–forbothgovernmentsand

thefoodindustry.Preventionalsohelpstoensure

consumersafety,maintainproductintegrityand

preservebrandreputation.Multi-stakeholder

collaborationinvolvinggovernments,international

organizations,civilsocietyandtheprivatesectoris

necessarytorespondtothechallengeseffectively.

Bybringingtogethergovernments,theprivate

sector,lawenforcementandtechnicalexpertsfrom

aroundtheworldtoworkincollaboration,theWTO

canhelptocombatillicittradeinfoodandfood

fraudinternationally.

Timely,thoroughinvestigationscandisruptillicit

tradeinfoodandfoodfraud.Criminalinvestigations

EXECUTIVESUMMARY7

8

Introduction

ThisisthefirstWTOpublicationonillicittradeinfood

andfoodfraud.ItincludescontributionsfromparticipantsintheWTO’sAnnualAgricultureSymposium,heldin

Geneva,11-12December2023,whichexploredthis

topic.AttheSymposium,prominentexpertsdiscussed

thevariousformsanddefinitionsofillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud,thelinkstointernationaltradeandwaysto

combatthephenomenoneffectively.

Buildingonthesediscussions,thispublicationpresentstheviewsofdifferentinternationalorganizations,

non-governmentalorganizationsandtheprivatesector.Contributorsexaminethetopicfromtheirareaof

expertise,offeringtheiruniqueperspectiveonillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud,andidentifyingwhattheyseeaspriorities.ThesediversecontributionsprovidenewareasfordiscussionandpotentialactionsfortheWTOand

itsmembers.

Thepublicationhighlightsfourkeymessages:

(i)Illicittradeinfoodandfoodfraudinflict

considerabledamagetointernationaltradeandpublichealth.

(ii)Preventionisamorecost-effectivestrategyfor

bothgovernmentsandthefoodindustry,sinceithelpstoensureconsumersafety,maintainproductintegrityandpreservebrandreputation.

(iii)Multi-stakeholdercollaborationinvolving

governments,internationalorganizations,civil

societyandtheprivatesectorisapre-requisitetobuildinganeffectiveresponse.

(iv)TheWTOrulebookbringsalegalframeworktointernationaltradeinfood,helpingtocombatillicittrade.

Thefollowingprovidesanoverviewofthepublication.

Chapter1:WTO-AgricultureandCommodities

Division

DoaaAbdel-Motaal,SeniorCounsellorintheAgriculture

andCommoditiesDivision,exploresthedifferent

definitionsofillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud,and

outlinesthemainagri-foodproductstargetedbyfraud.

ShepresentssomeofthekeyfindingsfromtheWTO’s

2023AnnualAgricultureSymposium,whichlookedinto

howtobetterleveragetheWTOrulebookinpreventing

andmitigatingillicittradeinagri-food.

Chapter2:WTO-EconomicResearchand

StatisticsDivision

GabrielleMarceau,SeniorCounsellorintheEconomic

ResearchandStatisticsDivision,notesthat,despite

thelackofdisciplinesexpresslyforillicittradein

agri-food,relevantprovisionsoftheWTOagreements

equipmemberswithnumeroustoolsandallowfor

amplepolicyspacetotackletheproblem.Thechapter

alsohighlightstheimportanceoftheWTOasaforum

formemberstoexchangeinformationandfacilitate

coordinationoftradepolicymeasures;includingthose

takentoaddressillicitagri-foodtrade.

Chapter3:TransnationalAlliancetoCombat

IllicitTrade

JeffreyHardy,DirectorGeneraloftheTransnational

AlliancetoCombatIllicitTrade(TRACIT),examines

theadverseimpactofillicitagri-foodtradeonthe

achievementoftheUnitedNationsSustainable

DevelopmentGoals(SDGs).Hehighlightshowfraud

andotherillicitactsinthefoodsupplychainhinder

progressonthevitalgoalstoeradicatehungerand

poverty,improvehealthandwell-being,andgenerate

sustainableeconomicgrowth.

ILLICITTRADEINFOODANDFOODFRAUD

INTRODUCTION9

TRACITisanindependent,private-sectorinitiativewith

theaimofmitigatingtheeconomicandsocialdamageofillicittradebystrengtheninggovernmentenforcementandmobilizingthemostaffectedbusinesses.

Chapter4:FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations

MaximoTorero,ChiefEconomistoftheFoodand

AgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations(FAO),surveysincidencesandriskfactorsoffoodfraudin

agri-foodsystemsandpresentsdifferentstrategiesforpolicymakersandregulatorstocounterfoodfraud.Headvocatesforbroadfoodsystemsthinking–which

meansaddressingfraudholistically–andstrengthenedcooperationattheglobal,regionalandnationallevelstodetect,addressandrespondtofoodfraudeffectively.

Inadditiontoleadinginternationaleffortstodefeat

hunger,theFAO’sgoalistoachievefoodsecurityforallandensurethatpeoplehaveregularaccesstosufficienthigh-qualityfoodtoleadactive,healthylives.

Chapter5:InternationalSeedFederation

MichaelKeller,SecretaryGeneraloftheInternational

SeedFederation(ISF),andSzonjaCs?rg?,Intellectual

PropertyandLegalAffairsManagerattheISF,provideanaccountofillegalseedpractices.Throughcasestudies,theyshowthedevastatingimpactofsuchpractices

ontheseedvaluechain,stressingtheimportanceof

intellectualpropertyinfosteringinnovationintheseed

sector,andhighlightingtheneedforcooperationamongstallactorsinthevaluechaintocombatfraud.

TheISFisanon-governmental,non-profitorganizationthatrepresentstheinterestsoftheseedindustryatthegloballeveltocreatethebestenvironmentfortheglobalmovementofseedandpromoteplantbreedingand

innovationinseed.

Chapter6:SSAFE

QuincyLissaur,ExecutiveDirectorofSSAFE,notes

thatglobalfoodtradehasbroughtbenefitsintermsofreducinghungerbuthasalsoincreasedthecomplexityofthefoodsupplychain.Tokeepthefoodchainresilientandsafefromfraudulentactivities,hehighlightsthe

privatesector’sresponsibilitiesandtheactionsitcantaketomitigatefoodfraudrisks,andarguesthatclosecollaborationbetweenthepublicsectorandprivate

sectorisfundamentaltocombatingfoodfraud.

SSAFEisaglobalnon-profitorganizationthatworkstoprotecthuman,plantandanimalhealthbyresponding

quicklytoemergingissuesthataffectthesafesupplyandtradeoffoodaroundtheworld.

Chapter7:UnitedNationsInterregionalCrimeandJusticeResearchInstitute

AntoniaMarieDeMeo,formerDirectoroftheUnited

NationsInterregionalCrimeandJusticeResearchInstitute(UNICRI),andMarcoMusumeci,UNICRIProgramme

ManagementOfficer,examinefoodfraudthrougha

criminaljusticelens.Throughvariousexamples,they

showcasethetacticsemployedbycriminalstoinfiltratethefoodsupplychain,theseriousriskstoconsumers’healthandsafety,theroleoftechnologiesinfacilitatinglawenforcementandthecriticalimportanceofarobustcriminaljusticeresponse.

UNICRIistheonlyUnitedNationsresearchand

traininginstitutetofocusoncriminaljusticeandcrimeprevention.Itanalyseslawenforcementresponses

tocrime,highlightingsuccessfulinvestigativeand

prosecutorialstrategies,andshowcasingthemasbestpracticesinstudiesandforlawenforcementand

judiciarytraining.

CH1APTER

Addressingillicittrade

infoodandfoodfraud

AUTHOR:

DOAAABDEL-MOTAAL

SeniorCounsellor

WTO-AgricultureandCommoditiesDivision

Abstract

TheWTOrulebookcanbeusedbymembersinthefightagainstillicittradeinfoodandfoodfraud,inparticulartheAgreementonthe

ApplicationofSanitaryandPhytosanitaryMeasures(SPSAgreement)andtheAgreementonTechnicalBarrierstoTrade(TBTAgreement).

Thischapterexploresthevariousdefinitionsoffoodfraud,providinganoverviewofthemainfoodproductsthathavebeenthetargetof

fraud,andthemostnotableincidentsthathavearisenoverthepasttwodecades.BuildingontheoutcomesoftheWTO’sAnnualAgriculture

SymposiuminDecember2023dedicatedtothistopic,thechapteraskswhetheritistimeforamoreexplicitconversationattheWTO.

12CHAPTER1.0●..●●

Definitionoffoodfraudandillicittradeinfood

Fromfoodfraudtothelarge-scalesmugglingof

agricultureproducts,illicittradeinagri-foodsunderminesfarmingandtheglobalfoodtradesystem,destabilizes

ruraleconomiesandjeopardizestheproductionand

deliveryoffair,safeandsustainablefoodsupplies.The

TransnationalAlliancetoCombatIllicitTrade(TRACIT,

2019)definesfoodfraudastheintentionalsubstitutionordilutionofanauthenticfoodoringredientwitha

cheaperproduct(suchasreplacingextravirginolive

oilwithacheaperoil),flavourorcolourenhancement

usingillicitorunapprovedsubstances,orsubstitutionofonespecieswithanother.Fakeinfantmilkpowderand

dangerouslyrecycledvegetableoilsareexamplesofhowadulteratedfoodsuppliescancontributetomalnutritionandunderminehealth.

Thesmugglingofagricultureproductsalsoformspart

ofTRACIT’sdefinitionofillicitfoodtrade.Smugglingis

typicallydrivenbyadisparitybetweenthepriceofagoodatitsoriginanditsdestinationwhereitmaybeprohibited,orbypricedifferentialsderivingfromgovernment

subsidies(TRACIT,2019).Thesmugglingofsugar,tea

andcocoa,forexample,destabilizesfoodsuppliesand

erodesthesustainabilityoftheunderlyinglegalindustries.

However,thereisnointernationallyharmonizedlegal

definitionoffoodfraudorofillicittradeinfood,and

creatingoneisbeyondthescopeofthispublication.

Differentjurisdictionshaveadopteddifferentdefinitionsoffoodfraud,specifically,basedonthescopeofthe

problemtheyaimtotackle.Whilesomejurisdictions

regulatefoodfraudwithintheframeworkoffoodsafetyandqualitylegislation,includingrulesonstandard-setting,labellingandqualitycontrol,consumerprotection

legislationandstrategieshaveofferedotheravenuesforgovernmentsandfoodcompaniestoprotectconsumersfromfoodfraud.Contractlawhasalsoprovidedan

entry-pointforthepreventionoffraudulentorotherillicitpracticesbythedifferentactorsinvolvedinthefood

supplychain.

Forexample,theUnitedStatesFoodandDrug

Administrationstatesthateconomicallymotivated

adulteration(EMA)inthecaseoffoodfraudoccurs

“whensomeoneintentionallyleavesout,takesout,or

substitutesavaluableingredientorpartofafood”or

“whensomeoneaddsasubstancetoafoodtomakeit

appearbetterorofgreatervalue.”1OthertypesofEMA

includemisbrandingviolationsandadulterationofother

products,suchasanimalfoodandcosmetics.

ThisdifferssomewhatfromthedefinitionoftheEuropean

Unionwhichconsidersfoodfraudtobea“suspected

intentionalactionbybusinessesorindividualsforthe

purposeofdeceivingpurchasersandgainingundue

advantagetherefrom,inviolationoftherulesreferredto

inArticle1(2)ofRegulation(EU)2017/625”onEU

agri-foodchains.2

Currently,theCodexAlimentariusCommissionis

developinganewguidancedocumentonfoodfraudthat

isexpectedtobepublishedin2024or2025.Itaimsto

developdefinitionsandupdatetheexistinginstrumentsof

Codextoaddresshorizontalandcross-cuttingissues.3

AnimportantexistinginstrumentistheCodexCode

ofEthicsforInternationalTradeinFoodincluding

ConcessionalandFoodAidTransactions,whichdates

backto1979(seeBox1).TheWTOdoesnotitself

definetheconceptofillicittradeinfoodorfoodfraud,

despiteprovidingnumerouslegalinstrumentsthataid

WTOmemberseverydayincombatingthephenomenon

(seeChapter2).

Atpresent,themostwell-knownandwidelyaccepted

definitionoffoodfraudisbySpinkandMoyer(2011):

“Foodfraudisacollectivetermusedtoencompass

thedeliberateandintentionalsubstitution,addition,

tampering,ormisrepresentationoffood,food

ingredients,orfoodpackaging;orfalseor

misleadingstatementsmadeaboutaproduct,

foreconomicgain.”

Itactsasacoredefinitionthatcapturesthemain

fraudulentpracticesintheagri-foodsector.4

ILLICITTRADEINFOODANDFOODFRAUD

BOX1

CodexAlimentariusCommission:CodeofEthicsforInternationalTradeinFood

ThemainprinciplesoftheCodeofEthicsforInternationalTradeinFoodarearticulatedinArticle3(Principles):

3.1Internationaltradeinfoodshouldbeconductedontheprinciplethatallconsumersareentitledtosafe,sounda