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Chapter1

Passage1HumanBody

Inthispassageyouwilllearn:

1.Classificationoforgansystems2.Structureandfunctionofeachorgansystem3.

Associatedmedicalterms

Tounderstandthehumanbodyitisnecessarytounderstandhowitspartsareput

togetherandhowtheyfunction.Thestudyofthebody'sstructureiscalledanatomy;the

studyofthebody'sfunctionisknownasphysiology.Otherstudiesofhumanbodyinclude

biology,cytology,embryology,histology,endocrinology,hematology,immunology,

psychologyetc.

了解人體各部分的組成及其功能,對(duì)于認(rèn)識(shí)人體是必需的。研究人體結(jié)構(gòu)的科學(xué)叫解剖

學(xué);研究人體功能的科學(xué)叫生理學(xué)。其他研究人體的科學(xué)包括生物學(xué)、細(xì)胞學(xué)、胚胎學(xué)、組

織學(xué)、分泌學(xué)、血液學(xué)、遺傳學(xué)、免疫學(xué)、心理學(xué)等等。

Anatomistsfinditusefultodividethehumanbodyintotensystems,thatis,the

skeletalsystem,themuscularsystem,thecirculatorysystem,therespiratorysystem,the

digestivesystem,theurinarysystem,theendocrinesystem,thenervoussystem,the

reproductivesystemandtheskin.Theprincipalpartsofeachofthesesystemsare

describedinthisarticle.

解剖學(xué)家發(fā)現(xiàn)把整個(gè)人體分成骨骼、肌肉、循環(huán)、呼吸、消化、泌尿、分泌、神經(jīng)、生

殖系統(tǒng)以及感覺(jué)器官的做法是很有幫助的。本文描繪并闡述了各系統(tǒng)的主要部分。

Theskeletalsystemismadeofbones,jointsbetweenbones,andcartilage.Its

functionistoprovidesupportandprotectionforthesofttissuesandtheorgansofthebody

andtoprovidepointsofattachmentforthemusclesthatmovethebody.Thereare206

bonesinthehumanskeleton.Theyhavevariousshapes-long,short,cube-shaped,flat,

andirregular.Manyofthelongboneshaveaninteriorspacethatisfilledwithbone

marrow,wherebloodcellsaremade.

骨骼系統(tǒng)由骨、關(guān)節(jié)以及軟骨組成。它對(duì)軟組織及人體器官起到支持和保護(hù)作用,并牽

動(dòng)骨胳肌,引起各種運(yùn)動(dòng)。人體有206根骨頭。骨形態(tài)不一,有長(zhǎng)的、短、立方的、扁的

及不規(guī)則的。許多長(zhǎng)骨里有一個(gè)層間隙,里面充填著骨髓,這即是血細(xì)胞的制造場(chǎng)所。

Ajointiswherebonesarejoinedtogether.Theconnectioncanbesoclosethatno

movementispossible,asisthecaseintheskull.Otherkindsofjointspermitmovement:

eitherbackandforthinoneplane-aswiththehingejointoftheelbow-ormovement

aroundasingleaxis-aswiththepivotjointthatpermitstheheadtorotate.Awiderange

ofmovementispossiblewhentheball-shapedendofonebonefitsintoasocketatthe

endofanotherbone,astheydointheshoulderandhipjoints.

關(guān)節(jié)把骨與骨連接起來(lái)。顱骨不能運(yùn)動(dòng),是由于骨與骨之間的連接太緊密。但其它的關(guān)

節(jié)可允許活動(dòng),如一個(gè)平面上的前后屈伸運(yùn)動(dòng),如肘關(guān)節(jié);或是繞軸心旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng),如樞軸點(diǎn)

允許頭部轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。如果一根骨的球形末端插入另一根骨的臼槽里,大輻度的運(yùn)動(dòng)(如肩關(guān)節(jié)、

髓關(guān)節(jié))即成為可能。

Cartilageisamoreflexiblematerialthanbone.Itservesasaprotective,cushioning

layerwherebonescometogether.Italsoconnectstheribstothebreastboneand

providesastructuralbaseforthenoseandtheexternalear.Aninfant'sskeletonismade

ofcartilagethatisgraduallyreplacedbyboneastheinfantgrowsintoanadult.

軟骨是一種比一般骨更具韌性的物質(zhì)。它是骨連結(jié)的保護(hù)、緩沖層。它把肋骨與胸骨連

結(jié)起來(lái),也是鼻腔與耳的結(jié)構(gòu)基礎(chǔ)。一個(gè)嬰兒的骨骼就是由軟骨組成,然后不斷生長(zhǎng)、骨化,

使嬰兒長(zhǎng)大成人。

Themuscularsystemallowsthebodytomove,anditscontractionsproduceheat,

whichhelpsmaintainaconstantbodytemperature.Striatedmusclescanbeconsciously

controlled.Theendsofthesemusclesareattachedtodifferentbonesbyconnective

tissuebandssothatwhenthemusclecontracts,onebonemovesinrelationtotheother.

Thismakesitpossibletomovethewholebody,aswhenwalking,ortomovejustonepart

ofthebody,aswhenbendingafinger.Contractionsoftheheartandsmoothmusclesare

notunderconsciouscontrol.Smoothmusclesarefoundinthewallsoforganssuchasthe

stomachandtheintestinesandservetomovethecontentsoftheseorgansthroughthe

body.肌肉系統(tǒng)使軀體運(yùn)動(dòng),肌肉收縮產(chǎn)生的熱有助于維持一個(gè)恒定的體溫。人體能夠有意

識(shí)地控制條紋肌。結(jié)締組織使肌肉末端附著于不同的骨面上,所以當(dāng)肌肉收縮時(shí),兩骨彼此

靠近而產(chǎn)生運(yùn)動(dòng)。這也就使整個(gè)人體可以運(yùn)動(dòng)起來(lái),如走路,運(yùn)動(dòng)軀體某個(gè)部位,如彎曲手

指。心臟收縮和平滑肌收縮就不是被意識(shí)所控制的。器官壁層的平滑肌,如胃腸壁的平滑肌

把胃腸中的物質(zhì)運(yùn)送到全身。

Thecirculatorysystem.Allpartsofthebodymusthavenourishmentandoxygenin

ordertofunctionandgrow,andtheirwasteproductsmustberemovedbeforethey

accumulateandpoisonthebody.Thecirculatorysystemdistributesneededmaterialsand

removesunneededones.Itismadeupoftheheart,bloodvessels,andblood,which

togethermakeupthecardiovascularsystem.Thebloodisalsopartofthebody'sdefense

system.Ithasantibodiesandwhitebloodcellsthatprotectthebodyagainstforeign

invaders.循環(huán)系統(tǒng):機(jī)體的所有部分需要營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)和氧氣來(lái)使之發(fā)揮功能和生長(zhǎng),也需要

在這些器官所產(chǎn)生的廢物積聚而危害生命之前將其排除。循環(huán)系統(tǒng)運(yùn)送有用物質(zhì)排泄廢物。

心血管系統(tǒng)是循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的組成之一;心血管系統(tǒng)包括心臟、血管及血液。血液也是機(jī)體防御

系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)部分,血液中有抗體及白細(xì)胞來(lái)防止機(jī)體受到外來(lái)的侵襲。

Theheartisamusclethatisdividedintotwonearlyidenticalhalves:onehalfreceives

bloodfromthelungsandsendsittotherestofthebody,theotherhalfsendsbloodthat

hastraveledthroughthebodybacktothelungs.Whentheheartmusclecontracts,the

bloodisforcedoutintoarteriesandenterssmallcapillaries.Bloodreturnstotheheart

throughveins.心臟是一塊被分為幾乎對(duì)等兩半的肌肉。一半吸收來(lái)自肺部的血液,并將血

液運(yùn)送到機(jī)體的其余部位,另一半使流經(jīng)全身的血液回流人肺。心臟收縮時(shí),動(dòng)脈把全身血

液輸送到毛細(xì)血管。靜脈輸送血液返回心臟。

Alsofunctioningincirculationisthelymphaticsystem.Someofthefluidthat

surroundscellsdoesnotreenterthebloodvesselsdirectly.Thisfluid,calledlymph,

returnstotheheartbywayofanothersystemofchannels-thelymphvessels.Lymph

nodesalongthesevesselsfilterthefluidbeforeitreenterstheblood.Thespleenisalarge

lymphaticorganthatfilterstheblood.淋巴系統(tǒng)也是循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的一個(gè)組成部分。一些細(xì)胞周

圍的體液不是直接回流入血管通道,這種體液叫淋巴液,它是流經(jīng)另一個(gè)管道系統(tǒng)一一淋巴

管而回流人心臟。沿淋巴管的淋巴結(jié)將淋巴液過(guò)濾,過(guò)濾后再回流人血液。脾是一個(gè)過(guò)濾血

液的大淋巴器官。

Therespiratorysystemtakesinoxygenfromtheairandexpelscarbondioxideand

watervapor.Airentersthenoseandmouthandtravelsthroughthelarynx,andtrachea.

Thetracheadividestoentereachofthetwolungsandthendividesmorethan20timesto

formaverylargenumberofsmallairspaces.Oxygenfromtheairenterstheblood

throughcapillariesinthewallsoftheseairspaces,andthebloodreleasecarbondioxide

intotheairspacestobeexhaled.呼吸系統(tǒng)從空氣中攝取氧氣,并將二氧化碳、水蒸氣排

出體外。空氣經(jīng)鼻腔、口腔人喉管、氣管。氣管分成左右支氣管,各連結(jié)左右肺,左右支氣

管再分枝20多次,在終端形成大量微小的肺泡。從空氣攝取的氧氣流經(jīng)這些肺泡壁的毛細(xì)

血管流入血液,血液再經(jīng)肺泡把釋放出的二氧化碳排出體外。

Thedigestivesystemconsistsofatubeextendingfromthemouthtotheanus.Init,

foodandfluidsaretakenin,movedthroughthebody,andbrokendownintosmall

moleculesthatareabsorbedintothecirculatorysystem.Thisbreakdown,knownas

digestion,isbothamechanicalandachemicalprocess.消化系統(tǒng)是一個(gè)從口腔直到肛門(mén)的

管道。食物和液體在消化道里被吸收,在腸道里移動(dòng)時(shí),被分解成小分子物質(zhì)后再進(jìn)入循環(huán)

系統(tǒng)。這種分解,即消化,是一個(gè)機(jī)械過(guò)程,也是一個(gè)化學(xué)過(guò)程。

Foodentersthroughthemouth,wherechewingandsalivastarttobreakitupand

makeiteasiertoswallow.Next,thefoodtravelsdownthroughtheesophagustothe

stomach.Contractionsofthestomach'smuscularwallcontinuetobreakdownthefood

mechanically,andchemicaldigestioncontinueswhenacidandenzymesaresecretedinto

thestomachcavity.食物進(jìn)入口腔里,咀嚼和唾液開(kāi)始將食物粉碎,使之便于吞咽。接著,

食物經(jīng)食管人胃。胃肌壁的收縮繼續(xù)機(jī)械化地分解食物,而當(dāng)酸和酶分泌入胃腔時(shí),化學(xué)性

消化開(kāi)始。

Theliquifiedfoodgraduallypassesintothesmallintestine.Inthefirstpartofthesmall

intestine,calledtheduodenum,enzymesfromthepancreasareadded.Theseenzymes

completethechemicalbreakdownofthefood.Thedigestionoffatisaidedbybile,which

ismadeintheliverandstoredinthegallbladder.Thesmallintestineofanadultisabout

21feet(6.4meters)long.Mostofitslengthisdevotedtoabsorbingthenutrientsreleased

duringthesedigestiveactivities.液體化食物逐漸進(jìn)入小腸。小腸的起始部分叫十二指腸,

胰腺分泌的酶輔助食物消化。這些酶完成食物的化學(xué)分解。肝臟分泌的膽汁貯存在膽囊,膽

汁有助于脂肪消化。一個(gè)成年人的小腸有21英尺(6.4米)長(zhǎng)。小腸的大部分腸段用來(lái)吸

收消化過(guò)程中釋放的營(yíng)養(yǎng)物質(zhì)。

Theliquidremainderofthefoodentersthelargeintestine,orcolon,whichisabout12

feet(3.7meters)long.Itismorethantwiceaswideasthesmallintestine.Inthelarge

intestinemostofthefluidisabsorbed,andtherelativelydryresiduesareexpelled.液狀的

剩余食物進(jìn)入大腸,或結(jié)腸,它大約有12英尺(3.7米)長(zhǎng)。大腸是小腸的兩倍多寬。大

部分液體在大腸被吸收,相對(duì)干化的殘余物被排出體外。

Theurinarysystemmaintainsnormallevelsofwaterandofcertainsmallmolecules

suchassodiumandpotassiuminthebody.Itdoesthisbypassingbloodthroughthe

kidneys,twoefficientfilteringorgansthatgetridofanyexcessofvariousmoleculesand

conservethosemoleculesthatareinshortsupply.泌尿系統(tǒng)維持水分及體某些小分子物

質(zhì),如鈉、鉀的正常水平。身體是通過(guò)讓,腎過(guò)濾血液來(lái)做到這一點(diǎn)的。腎是兩個(gè)有效的過(guò)

濾器官,它濾出各種多余的小分子物質(zhì),保留那些供應(yīng)不足的小分子物質(zhì)。

Thefluidthatleavesthekidneys,knownasurine,travelsthroughatubecalledthe

uretertothebladder.Thebladderholdstheurineuntilitisvoidedfromthebodythrough

anothertube,theurethra.從腎流出的液體,即尿,通過(guò)輸尿管人膀胱。膀胱起貯存尿液的

作用,直到尿經(jīng)膀胱另一端的管道排出。

Theendocrinesystem.Thetwosystemsthatcontrolbodyactivitiesaretheendocrine

systemandthenervoussystem.Theformerexertsitscontrolbymeansofchemical

messengerscalledhormones.Hormonesareproducedbyavarietyofendocrineglands,

whichreleasethehormonesdirectlyintothebloodstream.分泌系統(tǒng)。分泌和神經(jīng)是調(diào)控

機(jī)體活動(dòng)的兩個(gè)系統(tǒng),前者依靠其化學(xué)信使一一激素發(fā)揮作用。激素是由各種分泌腺體制造,

并直接被釋放入血流

Amajorglandisthepituitary,whichislocatedunderthebraininthemiddleofthe

head.Itproducesatleasteighthormones,whichaffectgrowth,kidneyfunction,and

developmentofthesexorgans.Becausesomeofthepituitary*shormonesstimulateother

glandstoproducetheirownhormones,thepituitarycalledthemastergland.腦垂體是一

個(gè)主要腺體,它位于頭中部腦下方。它至少分泌八種激素,這些激素對(duì)人體生長(zhǎng)、肝功能及

性器官發(fā)育有影響。因?yàn)槟X垂體分泌的一些激素促進(jìn)其他腺體分泌激素,所以腦垂體是主要

腺體。

Anothergland,thethyroid,islocatedbetweenthecollarbones.Itshormonecontrols

therateofthebody'smetabolism.Thesexorgans(ovariesendtestes)makethesexcells

andalsomakehormonesthatcontrolcertaincharacteristicsofmalesandfemales.

Locatedontopofeachkidneyistheadrenalgland,whichproducescortisoneand

adrenaline.Thepancreasproducesnotonlydigestiveenzymesbutalso3insulinand

glucagon,whichcontrolthebody'suseofsugarandstarches.另一個(gè)腺體,甲狀腺,位于

鎖骨之間。甲狀腺激素調(diào)控著機(jī)體新代的速度。性器官(卵巢、睪丸)分泌性細(xì)胞和性激素,

這些激素控制著男性和女性的某些特征。每邊腎上方是腎上腺,它分泌可的松和腎上腺激素。

胰腺不僅分泌消化酶,而且分泌胰島素和高血糖素,這兩種激素控制機(jī)體的糖分及淀粉的消

耗O

Thenervoussystem.Thebrain,thespinalcordandthenerve-alsocontrolsbody

activities.Thelowerpartsofthebraincontrolbasicfunctionssuchasbreathingandheart

rateaswellasbodytemperature,hunger,andthirst.Abovetheseregionsarethecenters

forsight,sound,touch,smell,andtaste,andtheregionsthatdirectvoluntarymuscular

activitiesofthearmsandlegs.Performedherearethehigherfunctionsofintegratingand

processinginformation.神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)——腦、脊髓及神經(jīng),也調(diào)控機(jī)體活動(dòng)。腦的偏下部位控

制著諸如呼吸、心跳、體溫、饑渴的基本活動(dòng)。而腦的偏上部位則是視覺(jué)、聽(tīng)覺(jué)、觸覺(jué)、嗅

覺(jué)及味覺(jué)中心,也是指揮臂、腿隨意肌肉運(yùn)動(dòng)的區(qū)域。神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)更高級(jí)的功能是整合、處理

息O

Thebrainreceivesandsendsinformationbymeansofnerves,manyofwhichlie

partlyinthespinalcord.Thespinalcordisprotectedbythespinalcolumn.Nervesenter

andleavethespinalcordateachlevelofthebody,travelingtoandfromthearms,legs,

andtrunk.Thesenervesbringinformationfromthevarioussenseorgans.Theinformation

isprocessedbythebrain,andthenmessagesarecarriedbacktomusclesandglands

throughoutthebody.腦通過(guò)神經(jīng)收集并傳送信息,許多神經(jīng)部分地分布在脊髓里。脊髓由

脊柱保護(hù)。在機(jī)體每一級(jí),神經(jīng)傳人、傳出脊髓,往返于臂、腿、軀體。這些神經(jīng)輸送來(lái)自

各種感覺(jué)器官的信息。信息經(jīng)腦處理后輸送回全身及腺體

Thereproductivesystemisconstructeddifferentlyformalesandfemales.Themale

reproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducing,transportingandmaintainingviable

sperm(themalesexcell).Italsoproducesthemalesexhormone,testosterone,which

regulatesthedevelopmentofabeard,pubichair,adeepvoiceandotherbodily

characteristicsoftheadultmale.男、女性的生殖系統(tǒng)不同。男性生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生、輸送、維

持能存活的精子(男性性細(xì)胞卜它也分泌男性激素、睪酮,以此調(diào)節(jié)胡須、陰毛、深沉嗓

音極其他成年男子身體發(fā)育的特征。

Thefemaleproductivesystemisresponsibleforproducingandtransportingova(the

femalesexcells),eliminatingovafromthebodywhentheyarenotfertilizedbysperm,

nourishingandprovidingaplaceforgrowthofanembryowhenanovumisfertilizedby

sperm,andnourishinganewbornchild.Thefemalereproductivesystemalsoproduces

thefemalesexhormones,estrogenandprogesterone,whichregulatethedevelopmentof

breastsandotherbodilycharacteristicsofthematurefemale.女性生殖系統(tǒng)產(chǎn)生、輸送卵

子(女性性細(xì)胞),將未受精的卵子排出體外,而當(dāng)精、卵結(jié)合時(shí),女性生殖系統(tǒng)培養(yǎng)、提

供胚胎生長(zhǎng)場(chǎng)所,并孕育新生兒。女性生殖系統(tǒng)也分泌女性性激素一一雌激素和孕酮,以此

調(diào)節(jié)乳房及其他成熟女性身體發(fā)育的特征。

Theskinisacompletelayerthatprotectstheinnerstructuresofthebody,anditisthe

largestofthebody*sorgans.Itkeepsoutforeignsubstancesandpreventsexcessive

waterevaporation.Thenervesintheskinprovidetactileinformation.Theskinalsohelps

keepthebody'stemperaturecloseto37℃,heatisconservedbyreducingbloodflow

throughtheskinorisexpendedbyincreasingbloodflowandbyevaporationofsweatfrom

theskin.Hairandnailsareaccessorystructuresoftheskin.皮膚是保護(hù)肌體層結(jié)構(gòu)的完

整層,也是機(jī)體的最大器官。皮膚防御外來(lái)侵襲,防止過(guò)多水分蒸發(fā)。皮膚上的神經(jīng)提供觸

覺(jué)信息。皮膚也能將體溫維持到98.6華氏度(約37攝氏度卜通過(guò)皮膚的血流量降低時(shí),

熱量就被儲(chǔ)存起來(lái),通過(guò)皮膚的血流增加及汗液蒸發(fā)時(shí),熱量就散發(fā)。頭發(fā)及指甲是皮膚的

附屬結(jié)構(gòu)。

CellsandTissues細(xì)胞與組織

Inthispassage,youwilllearn:1.Humanbodysystemsasawhole2.Vitalpartsofacell

3.Fourkindsoftissues

Cellsareorganizedintotissues,andtissuesarearrangedintoorgans,whichinturn

aregroupedintosystems.Eachbodysystemservesitsspecificfunctions.Bearinmind

howeverthatthebodyfunctionsasawholenosystemisindependentoftheothers.

Theyworktogethertomaintainthebody'sstateofinternalstability,termedhomeostasis.

Nowletsbeginourdiscussionwithcells,thesmallestunitoflivingmatterthatcanexistby

itself.細(xì)胞構(gòu)成組織,組織構(gòu)成器官,器官又進(jìn)一步構(gòu)成系統(tǒng)。人體的每個(gè)系統(tǒng)都有其特定

功能,但是,請(qǐng)記住這里:機(jī)體是作為一個(gè)整體來(lái)發(fā)揮作用的,沒(méi)有哪個(gè)系統(tǒng)能夠獨(dú)立于其

他系統(tǒng)而存在,是整體系統(tǒng)共同作用保持了機(jī)體部的穩(wěn)定狀態(tài),即體平衡?,F(xiàn)在,我們先討

論細(xì)胞-能獨(dú)立存在活性物質(zhì)的最小單位。

Thebodycanbestudiedfromitssimplesttoitsmostcomplexlevel,beginningwiththe

cell.Allbodyfunctionsresultfromtheactivitiesofbillionsofthespecializedcells.Some

plantsandanimalsconsistofonlyasinglecell.Othersarecomposedofmanybillionsof

cells.從細(xì)胞開(kāi)始,我們能夠從最簡(jiǎn)單到最復(fù)雜的水平來(lái)研究機(jī)體。所有人體的功能都來(lái)自

億萬(wàn)個(gè)特定細(xì)胞活動(dòng),有的動(dòng)植物僅由一個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成,其他生物則由億萬(wàn)個(gè)細(xì)胞構(gòu)成。

Cellsexistinavarietyofshapesandsizes.Theymay,forexample,becube-shaped

orflat.Scientistswhostudycellshavedeterminedthatasinglecellmaybeaslargeasa

tennisballorsosmallthatthousandswouldfitonthepointofaneedle.Theyolkofa

hen'seggisactuallyaverylargecell.Bycontrast,bacteria一一eachoneofwhichisatiny

cell——areamongthesmallestcells.Regardlessofitsshapeorsize,everycellcontains

the“machinery"neededtomaintainlife.Whilenormallycellsfunctionwithgreatefficiency,

theyaresubjecttovariousdisordersthatresultindisease.細(xì)胞有很多種形狀和大小。列

如:有可能是立方形或扁形的??茖W(xué)家的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)單獨(dú)一個(gè)細(xì)胞可以像網(wǎng)球一樣的大小,或

小到幾千個(gè)細(xì)胞才能剛好填滿針頭。雞的蛋黃是一個(gè)非常大的單細(xì)胞。微小的細(xì)菌呢算是最

小的細(xì)胞。不管是細(xì)胞大小或形狀的不同,每個(gè)細(xì)胞都有〃需要存活的機(jī)制〃。對(duì)每個(gè)正常的

細(xì)胞,有效力的細(xì)胞,都存在許多問(wèn)題,能導(dǎo)致疾病。

Thesizeofcellsisusuallymeasuredinmicrons.Amicronisamillionthofameter,

andabout25,000micronsequaloneinch.Thesmallestbacteriaareabout0.2micronin

diameter.Theaveragecellinthehumanbodyabouttenmicronsindiameterisa

speckbarelyvisiblewithouttheaidofamicroscope.細(xì)胞的大小是以〃微米”為長(zhǎng)度單位。

微米是一米的一百萬(wàn)分之一,25000微米等于一寸。最小的細(xì)菌的圓徑是0.2微米。人體正

常細(xì)胞的評(píng)價(jià)圓徑約十微米,肉眼勉強(qiáng)可以看得到,不需要顯微鏡的幫助。

Thestudyofcellsisthebranchofbiologycalledcytology.Thesciencethatdealswith

cellsonthesmalleststructuralandfunctionalleveliscalledmolecularbiology.研究關(guān)于

〃細(xì)胞〃是生物學(xué)的分支,成為細(xì)胞生物學(xué)。在最微小水平針對(duì)細(xì)胞的結(jié)構(gòu)及功能的研究成為

分子生物學(xué)。

Allcellsconsistofprotoplasm,the"livingjelly."Theprotoplasmofatypicalcellforms

threevitalparts---thecellmembrane,thecytoplasm,andthenucleus.Themembrane

enclosestheothercellstructures.Muchofthechemicalworkofthecellisdoneinthe

cytoplasm,whichsurroundsthenucleus.Thenucleus,enclosedbyitsownmembrane,is

thecontrolcenterofthecell,(seeFigure1-1)所有細(xì)胞都是以〃原生質(zhì)”,又稱〃生命膠質(zhì)”

所形成的。典型細(xì)胞的原生質(zhì)形成了三個(gè)重要部分,細(xì)胞膜、細(xì)胞質(zhì)和細(xì)胞核。細(xì)胞膜圈住

了細(xì)胞的其他結(jié)構(gòu)。大部分的化學(xué)反應(yīng)都在細(xì)胞核周圍,細(xì)胞質(zhì)完成的。被自己的膜包圍的

細(xì)胞核是細(xì)胞的控制中心。

thecellsMembrane細(xì)胞膜

Cellscansurviveonlyinaliquidmediumthatbringsinfoodandcarriesawaywaste.For

one-celledorganismsthisfluidisanexternalbodyofwater---theocean,alake,ora

stream.Formany-celledplantsandanimals,however,themediumispartofthe

organism--inplants,thesap;inanimals,theblood.細(xì)胞只能存活在能供養(yǎng)分又能排除廢

物的液體媒介中。對(duì)單細(xì)胞生物來(lái)說(shuō),這就是細(xì)胞外的液體,如:大海里、河里或水流中。

在對(duì)多細(xì)胞生物而言,這種媒介就是生物體的一部分,植物以汁液的形式,動(dòng)物以血液的形

式。

Thecellmembraneissemipermeable,ordifferentiallypermeablesomesubstancescan

passthroughit,butotherscannot.Thischaracteristicenablesthecelltoadmituseful

substancesandtorejectharmfulsubstancesfromthesurroundingfluidaswellastoforce

out,orexcretewasteproductsintothefluid.細(xì)胞膜是半滲透性或區(qū)別性的滲透膜,即某些

物質(zhì)能滲透。這個(gè)特殊性使細(xì)胞對(duì)細(xì)胞周圍只吸收了需要的物質(zhì)而排除掉有害的物質(zhì),包括

細(xì)胞的廢物通過(guò)液體化后排出細(xì)胞外。

Thecellmembraneisanextremelythinbuttoughbandofproteinandphospholipid

molecules.Phospholipidsarechemicalssimilartostoredfat.Ontheevidenceofelectron

micrographs,biologistsbelievethatithasporesthroughwhichcertainsmallmolecules

passintact.Substancesprobablypassthroughthecellmembraneinseveralways.Small

chamberslocatedonthecellmembranecalledcaveolaegatherchemicalsignalsand

channelthemintothecells.Thecaveolaemayalsohelpdistributeproteinsthroughoutthe

cell.Largemoleculesenterthecellbyaprocesscalleddiffusion,inwhichtheymaybe

dissolvedbysubstancesinthecellmembrane.Theycanthenthroughthemembrane

withoutdifficulty.Somecellstakeinlargemoleculesbymeansofpinocytosis.Inthis

process,thecellmembraneformsapocketaroundlargemoleculesfloatingagainstit.The

molecule-and-fluid-filledpocketthenbreadsloosefromthemembranetobecomea

bubblelikevacuole,andthevacuolethendriftsintothecytoplasm.Finally,thevacuole

wallbreaksupandthemoleculesarereleasedintothecytoplasm.細(xì)胞膜是一種非常薄但

確以很堅(jiān)固的蛋白磷脂膜形成。磷脂是一種類似于儲(chǔ)存的脂肪的蛋白物質(zhì)。通過(guò)電子顯微鏡,

生物學(xué)家相信細(xì)胞膜有孔使較小的物質(zhì)完全可以通過(guò)。物質(zhì)可通過(guò)多種方式從細(xì)胞膜進(jìn)入。

細(xì)胞膜上的結(jié)構(gòu),稱〃小穴〃,可接受化學(xué)信號(hào)再傳到細(xì)胞。小穴還可能參于細(xì)胞蛋白的分配。

大的分子可通過(guò)〃滲濾〃進(jìn)入細(xì)胞,或被細(xì)胞膜體分解,使它們更容易的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞。有些細(xì)胞

可通過(guò)〃胞飲〃方式吞飲較大的物質(zhì)。這個(gè)過(guò)程是通過(guò)細(xì)胞膜在大物質(zhì)形成了〃帶〃把它包圍

著,將它以泡狀的〃液泡〃引入細(xì)胞質(zhì),最后包圍解散,大物質(zhì)成功的進(jìn)入細(xì)胞。

Thecytoplasm細(xì)胞質(zhì)

Thecytoplasmismainlywater.Itswatercontentvariesfromaminimumofabout65

percenttoamaximumofabout95percent.Thesolidsinthecytoplasmincludegranular

proteins,carbohydrates,dropletsoffat,andpigments.Thecytoplasmisthusacolloidal

system.細(xì)胞質(zhì)主要成分是〃水〃。水分含量有百分之65到最高,百分之95。細(xì)胞質(zhì)的固體

包括蛋白顆粒、碳水化合物、脂肪小滴和色素。細(xì)胞質(zhì)是膠體性的。

Thecytoplasmmaybeeitherwateryorsyrupy,dependingontheconcentrationofsolids

dispersedinthefluid.Whenthesolidcontentdecreases,thesestructuresseemtovanish.

Changesinconcentrationalsoproduceanapparentsteamingofthecytoplasmfromplace

toplacewithinthecell.Thisoccurs,forexample,whenfoodmoleculesenterthecell.細(xì)

胞質(zhì)可能是水性或糖漿性,根據(jù)散在細(xì)胞質(zhì)固體的濃度。當(dāng)固體成分濃度增多,膜狀和纖維

狀結(jié)果在細(xì)胞質(zhì)顯出。而當(dāng)固體成分濃度減少時(shí),膜狀和纖維狀的結(jié)構(gòu)就消失。濃度的變化

還可以表現(xiàn)細(xì)胞質(zhì)局部流動(dòng)的變化。食物分子進(jìn)入時(shí)可見(jiàn)。

Mostofthecell'sconstantworkofkeepingaliveisperformedinthecytoplasm.Herefood

moleculesarechangedintothematerialneededforenergyandmaterialsforgrowthor

stiffeningofthecellmembranearemanufacturesneededbytherestoftheorganism.For

example,plantcellscontainingchlorophyllmanufactureglucoseaplantfoodfrom

carbondioxideandwater.大部分為了細(xì)胞存活的工作都在此處(細(xì)胞質(zhì))完成的。在此處,

食物物質(zhì)將被轉(zhuǎn)化成提供細(xì)胞能量的材料和提供細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)的材料,或細(xì)胞膜的增強(qiáng)劑所生

產(chǎn)。多細(xì)胞植物的細(xì)胞質(zhì)還是生產(chǎn)了對(duì)其他生物提供食物的物質(zhì)。列如:植物葉綠素所產(chǎn)生

的葡萄糖,植物的食物,從水和二氧化碳合成。

Oneofthecytoplasm'skeyenergytransactionsoccursinthesausage-shaped

mitochondria.Eachmitochondrionhasaninnerandanoutermembrane.Likethecell

membrane,themembranesofthemitochondrionaresemipermeable.Foodmolecules

thatpassintothecytoplasmaretakenintothemitochondriaandoxidized,orburned,for

energy.細(xì)胞質(zhì)能量轉(zhuǎn)換的要點(diǎn)發(fā)生在錐狀形的線粒體。每個(gè)線粒體都有膜和外膜。像細(xì)胞

膜一樣,線粒體的膜也是半滲透性。進(jìn)入線粒體的食物分子被氧化提供出能量。

Theendoplasmicreticulum,anetworkofmembranoustubes,runsthroughthecytoplasm.

Intheopinionofsomebiologists,thisnetworkisacontinuousstructurethatbeginsatthe

cellmembrane,twiststhroughthecytoplasm,andendsatthemembranesurroundingthe

nucleus.Locatedalongtheendoplasmicreticulumaswellaselsewhereinthecytoplasm

arenumerousribosomes.Thesetinygranulesconsistinpartofribonucleicacid(RNA).

Proteinsaremanufacturedattheribosomes.TheGolgicomplex,orGolgiapparatus,isa

membranousstructurecomposedofstacksofthinsacs.Newlymadeproteinsmovefrom

theendoplasmicreticulumtotheGolgicomplex,wheretheyarestoredforlatersecretion.

胞漿網(wǎng),在細(xì)胞質(zhì)中由膜所形成管狀的網(wǎng)。有些生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為這是一種連續(xù)性結(jié)構(gòu),始點(diǎn)為

細(xì)胞膜,在細(xì)胞膜扭絞,終點(diǎn)為細(xì)胞核的膜。分布于胞漿網(wǎng)包括細(xì)胞質(zhì)中某處的是核糖體。

這些小顆粒是核糖核酸所形成的。蛋白質(zhì)是在核糖體合成的。高爾基體是膜狀囊包堆成層形

成的。新合成的蛋白從胞漿網(wǎng)移動(dòng)到高爾基體儲(chǔ)存,為了后來(lái)分泌所用。

Vacuolesdriftthroughthecytoplasmandusuallycarryfoodmoleculesinsolution.

Lysosomesarestructuressomewhatsimilarinappearancetovacuolesbutdenser.They

appeartohaveadigestivefunction.Eachlysosomeisfilledwithdigestiveenzymesand

encasedinamembrane.Lysosomesarebelievedtobreakdownfoodsubstancesbrought

intothecellbypinocytosis.IthasbeensuggestedthattheGolgicomplexplaysapartin

theformationoflysosomes.在細(xì)胞質(zhì)游動(dòng)的液泡一般是帶著食物分子的溶液。溶酶體是一

種有點(diǎn)像液泡的結(jié)構(gòu),但較稠。它是用來(lái)消化的。每個(gè)溶酶體的膜都是添裝著消化酶。我們

認(rèn)為它是消化通過(guò)〃胞飲〃方式的大物質(zhì)。也認(rèn)為高爾基體對(duì)溶酶體的形成有關(guān)系。

TheNucleus細(xì)胞核

Nearthecenterofthecellisaroundishoroval-shapednucleus.Thenucleuscontrolsthe

growthanddivisionofthecell.Italsocontainsthestructuresthattransmithereditarytraits.

細(xì)胞的中央,圓形或橢圓形的就是細(xì)胞核。細(xì)胞核控制細(xì)胞的生長(zhǎng)和分化。也裝著遺傳信息。

Enclosedbyatwo-layeredmembrane,thenucleuscontainsaliquidcallednucleoplasm

aswellasstrandsofdeoxyribonucleicacid(DNA)coveredwithacoatingofprotein.A

strandofDNAconsistsofalongseriesofgenes,whicharetheunitsofheredityofplants

andanimals.Genesdeterminethecharacteristicsofacell.Theydothisbyregulatingthe

productionofRNA,whichinturncontrolsthemanufactureofspecificproteins.被兩層膜

圈住著,細(xì)胞核含有稱為〃核質(zhì)(漿)〃的液體和脫氧核糖核酸的蛋白層。脫氧核糖核酸縷是

很長(zhǎng)的基因系列所組成的,它是植物和動(dòng)物的遺傳信息?;驔Q定了細(xì)胞的特征。它是通過(guò)

調(diào)節(jié)核糖核酸,使核糖核酸產(chǎn)出特異的蛋白。

Humancells,forexample,makeonlyproteinsuniquetohumanbeingsDNAstrandsare

usuallytoothinlystrungouttobeseenwithanopticalmicroscope.Becausethestrands

arereadilystainedwithdyes,theyarecalledchromatin.Whenacellbeginstodivide,

however,thechromatinthickensintotheformofchromosomes.歹?。萑纾喝说募?xì)胞,只產(chǎn)出

人獨(dú)特?fù)碛械牡鞍?。脫氧核糖核酸縷一般都很細(xì)小過(guò)光學(xué)顯微鏡能觀察到。因?yàn)槊撗鹾颂呛?/p>

酸縷能夠染色后部分被染,稱〃染色質(zhì)〃。細(xì)胞分化過(guò)程中,染色體拾起變厚形成了〃染色體〃。

Anucleusnotundergoingdivisionhasatleastonenucleolus.Thenucleoluscontainsa

concentrationofRNA.BiologiststhinkRNAismadeinitiallyinthenucleusaccordingtoa

DNA“blueprint"andstoredthereuntilneededforproteinmanufacture.細(xì)胞核分化核仁不

會(huì)減少,最少要有一個(gè)核仁。核仁含有豐富的核糖核酸。生物學(xué)家認(rèn)為核糖核酸原本在核仁

里,根據(jù)脫氧核糖核酸的藍(lán)圖造出而藏在此處直到有蛋白合成的需要。

thenucleusofanimalcellsisasphericalstructurecalledthecentrosome,fromwhich

astersradiate.Thecentrosomecontainsapairofroddedstructurecalledcentrioles,which

usuallylieatrightanglestoeachother.Althoughcentriolesandcentrosomeshavenot

beenseeninplantcells,biologistsbelievethatplantcellscontainsimilarstructures.靠近

動(dòng)物的細(xì)胞核的圓形結(jié)構(gòu)叫〃中心體〃,可見(jiàn)呈放射狀散發(fā)的星體。中心體含有一對(duì)棍狀結(jié)構(gòu),

稱為〃中心粒〃,一般都形成正確固定的角度。無(wú)法在植物細(xì)胞發(fā)現(xiàn)中心體和中心粒,但生物

學(xué)家認(rèn)為植物應(yīng)該有存在類似功能的其他結(jié)構(gòu)。

Tissues組織

Cellsareorganizedintotissuesthatperformspecificfunctions.Thefourbasictissuetypes

areasfollows:多細(xì)胞組成了組織,為了特異的功能。四種基本的組織:

Epithelialtissuescoversandprotectsbodystructuresandlinesorgans,vessels,and

cavities.上皮組織:覆蓋及保護(hù)著身體結(jié)構(gòu)和分清器官、導(dǎo)管和空腔。

Connectivetissues---supportsandbindsbodystructures.Itcontainsfibersandother

nonlivingmaterialbetweenthecells;includedarefattissues,cartilage,boneandblood.

結(jié)締組織:支柱和聯(lián)結(jié)著身體結(jié)構(gòu)。包括細(xì)胞之間的纖維和其它無(wú)生物結(jié)構(gòu)。包括脂肪組織、

軟骨、骨頭和血液。

Muscletissuescontractstoproducemovement.Thethreetypesare:skeletalor

voluntarymusclethatmovestheskeleton;thecardiacmuscleoftheheart;andthe

smoothmusclethatformsthewallsoftheabdominalorgans.Cardiacandsmoothmuscle

canfunctionwithoutconsciouscontrolandarethusdescribedasinvoluntarymuscle.肌

肉組織:通過(guò)收拾來(lái)產(chǎn)生動(dòng)作。分為三種:骨骼肌,作用于一般骨骼移動(dòng)。心機(jī),心臟的肌

肉。平滑肌,形成胃腸道壁的肌肉。心機(jī)和平滑肌是非意識(shí)性,不隨意性肌肉。

Nervoustissuemakesupthebrain,spinalcord,andnerves.Itcoordinatesand

controlsbodyresponsesbytransmittingelectricalimpulses.神經(jīng)組織:組成大腦、脊椎和

神經(jīng)。它是通過(guò)動(dòng)作電位來(lái)超空身體。

Thesimplesttissuesaremembranes.Mucousmembranessecretethickfluidcalled

mucusthatprotectsunderlyingtissues.Serousmembranessecreteathin,wateryfluid.

Theylinebodycavitiesandcoverorgans.最簡(jiǎn)單的組織就是膜。粘液膜分泌出粘稠的膠

液,起得組織保護(hù)作用。粘液組織分泌出較稀的粘液,起得身體導(dǎo)管的分界和覆蓋著各個(gè)器

官。

Humandiseases

Inthispassageyouwilllearn:1.diseaseandpathology2.theclassificationof

diseases3.germszinvasionofthehumanbody4.thebody'sdefenseagainstinvasion

5.thebody'simmunitytodiseases

ThebriefsurveyofthehumanbodyinChapterOnehasgivenusaglimpseintotwo

differentstudiesthatareconsideredthefundamentalsofmedicalsciences,namely

anatomyandphysiology.However,thepictureisnotcompletewithoutconsidering

pathology,thesciencethatdealswiththestructuralandfunctionalchangesproducedby

thedisease.Infact,themodernapproachtothestudyofdisorderemphasizestheclose

relationshipofthepathologicalandphysiologicalaspectsandtheneedtounderstandthe

fundamentalsofeachintreatinganybodydiseases.第一章中,通過(guò)對(duì)人體的概論,即解

剖學(xué)與生理學(xué),我們對(duì)兩種被認(rèn)為是醫(yī)學(xué)基礎(chǔ)的不同學(xué)科有了一個(gè)大致的印象。然而如果我

們不考慮病理學(xué),這門(mén)涉及由疾

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