高等教育和就業(yè)中英文對照外文翻譯文獻(xiàn)

中英文對照外文翻譯(文檔含英文原文和中文翻譯)WhatDoEducationalMismatchesTellUsAboutSkillMismatches?ACross-countryAnalysisIntroductionThereisasubstantialresearchliteraturewhichdealswithvariousaspectsofimperfectmatchingbetweengraduates’educationalattainmentandtheeducationalrequirementsofjobs.Intheeconomicliteratureonover-education,over-utilisationandunderutilisationmoreespecially,therelationshipbetweenhighereducationandemploymentisinterpretedintermsoftheextenttowhichthehighereducationsectorprovidesgraduateswiththeknowledgeandskillstomatchemploymentneeds(seeBorghans&DeGrip,2000;Büchel,DeGrip&Mertens,2003).Thismatchisbelievedtoaffectproductivity,earnings,andworksatisfaction.Mostofthisresearchconcentratedontheeffectsofworkinginajobthatdoesnotmatchone’slevelofeducation,theunderlyingassumptionbeingthatthisimposesalimitationontheuseofskills.Inaddition,manystudiesalsotakeintoaccounttheeffectsofworkinginajobforwhichadifferentfieldofstudyisrequired.Thisarticleseekstoanalysehowfartheknowledgeacquiredinhighereducationcorrespondstothatrequiredonthejob.Thecentralissueiswhataperceivedmismatchmeansintermsofthematchbetweenrequiredandavailableskills.Doeducationalmismatchesnecessarilyimplymismatchesbetweenacquiredandrequiredskills?Toanswerthisquestion,fivecountriesthatparticipatedinthe1998CHEERSstudywillbeexaminedinmoredetail.Particularattentionwillbepaidtothedifferencesbetweenthesecountries.Fivecountrieswereselectedwhichdifferedfromeachotherintermsofboththestructureoftheirnationallabourmarketsandoftheirhighereducationsystems:Spain,Germany,theNetherlands,theUKandJapan.Therearewidespreadbeliefsaboutdifferencesandcommonelementsinthesecountries.GermanyandtheNetherlandsareexamplesofcountrieswherethematchisgenerallybelievedtoberatherclose.IntheUKandJapan,itisgenerallythoughttoberatherlooseandindirectandemployerstendtogivegreatervaluetogenericskills.Spainissomewhereinbetween.Thesecountriesalsodifferconsiderablyintheincidenceofbothover-andunder-education.Althoughtheimpressiveevolutionofthesupplyofhighlyeducatedpeoplehasnotbeenmatchedbyanequalincreaseinthesupplyofskilledvacancies,countriesshowavariedpatterninthisrespect.IncountriessuchastheUKandGermany,studieshavefoundovereducationtobemorepronouncedthanundereducation,whileintheNetherlandsandSpain,somestudieshavefoundtheopposite(seeforcountry-specificstudiesDolton&Vignoles,1998;Groot,Maassen&Brink,2000;Alba-Ramirez,1993;Alba-Ramirez&Blásquez,2003;SeealsotheoverviewbySloane,2003).TheoreticalBackgroundThehumancapitaltheorywasdevelopedintheearly1960stoexplaintherelationshipbetweenindividuals’levelofschoolingandtheirearningsinthelabourmarket.Educationdevelopsskills(‘humancapital’)thatmakegraduatesmoreproductiveintheirjobsandthisisreflectedinhigherearnings(Becker,1964;Mincer,1974).Thehumancapitaltheoryisbasedonthreemainpropositions(Rumberger,1994):1theprimaryroleofformalschoolingistodevelopthehumancapital,ortheknowledgeandskills,offutureworkers;2thelabourmarketefficientlyallocateseducatedworkerstofirmsandjobswheretheyarerequired;3thehumancapitalofworkersincreasestheirproductivityintheworkplacewhichisthenrewardedwithhigherearnings.Althoughthistheoryhasbeenwellsupportedbytheresultsofresearch,ithasbeencriticised.Someofthemaincriticismshavecomefromscholarswhoemphasisethedemandsideofthelabourmarket.Onesuchcriticismisthatitignoresimportantqualitativedifferencesinthetypesofknowledgeandskillsproducedinhighereducation.Althoughthetheoryacknowledgesdifferencesingeneralskillsthatcanbeappliedtoawidevarietyofjobs,thereareimportantindependentdimensionstohumanabilitiesandskillsthatcovernotonlythecognitivearea,butalsothephysicalandsocialareas(Gardner,1983).Anothercriticismistheeffectsofmismatchesbetweengraduates’acquiredskillslevelsandthosethatarerequiredintheworkplace.Theyarethoughttohaveadverseeffectsonbothproductivityandearnings.Morethanthestandardhumancapitalmodel,thejobassignmentmodelisveryexplicitabouttherelevanceofthedemandsideofthelabourmarket.ThismodelasdevelopedbySattinger(1993)isbasedonthepropositionthatthereisanallocationprobleminassigningheterogeneousworkerstojobsthatdifferintheircomplexity.Theallocationisregardedasoptimalwhenthemostcompetentworkersareassignedtothemostcomplexjobandthelesscompetentworkersareassignedtosimplerjobs.Inotherwords,ifyoucangettherightpersonintherightplace,youwilloptimiseearnings,productivitygains,jobsatisfaction,etc.Inthecaseofamismatch,thelimitationsoftheworkerorthejobimposeanunnecessaryrestrictionontheproductivitythatcanbeachieved.Employeesworkingbelowtheireducationallevelwillfindthatthecharacteristicsofthejobimposealimitationtotheuseoftheirskillsandthereforetoproductivityandearnings.Conversely,employeesworkinginajobabovetheirlevelwilllacksomeoftheskillsneededtorealisetheproductivepotentialofthejob.Animportantassumptionoftheassignmentmodelisthatdifferentcategoriesofeducationandjobscanbecharacterisedashavingfixedlevelsofavailableandrequiredknowledgeandskills.Inotherwords,educationalmismatchesimplyskillmismatches.Althoughtheassignmentmodelinitselfseemshighlyplausible,thisbasicassumptioncanbequestioned.UsingdatafromasurveyofgraduatesfromDutchuniversitiesandhigherprofessionalinstitutions,AllenandVanderVelden(2001)madeadistinctionbetweenaformalmismatchbetweenactualandrequirededucation(educationalmismatch)andbetweenactualandrequiredskills(skillmismatch).Twokindsofskillmismatchwereconsidered.Graduateswereasked(1)whethertheircurrentjobofferedsufficientscopetousetheirknowledgeandskills(skilluse),and(2)whethertheyfeltthattheywouldperformbetterintheircurrentjobiftheyhadadditionalknowledgeandskills(skilldeficit).Theirstudyrevealedonlyaratherweakrelationshipbetweeneducationalmismatchesandthesetwoformsofskillsmismatches.Theirresultsprovidestrongsupportfortheassumptionthatthematchbetweenindividualhumancapitalandthecharacteristicsofthejobmatters.Contrarytotheassumptionsoftheassignmenttheory,however,educationalmismatchesareneitheranecessarynorasufficientconditionforskillmismatches.ItappearedthatahighnumberofDutchgraduateswhowereworkinginjobsthatwerenotcloselyrelatedtotheirleveland/orfieldofstudynonethelessstatedthattheymadegreatuseoftheirknowledgeandskillsintheirwork.Furthermore,onlyasmallproportionofthewageeffectsofeducationalmismatcheswasaccountedforbyskillmismatches.Thesehadastrongnegativeimpactonjobsatisfaction,unlikeeducationalmismatches.CHEERSDataItisworthconsideringwhethertheCHEERSdataprovidefurtherinsight.InhisconcludingchapteroftheforthcomingbookontheCHEERSproject,U.Teichlerquestionstheassumptionthataclose‘match’betweeneducationandemploymentcategoriesisagoodindicatorofgraduates’preparationfortheirprofessionaltasks.Hegoesontoclaimthatemploymentoutsidegraduates’traditionalprofessionalareascannotbetakenasanindicationthatstudyisirrelevantforemploymentandwork.Hebasesthisclaimonthefindingthatatleastathirdofthegraduatesworkinginapositionforwhichalowerlevelofeducationwouldhavebeenmoreappropriatereportedthattheymadeuseofsomeoftheknowledgetheyacquiredduringtheircourseofstudyintheirworkassignments(Teichler,forthcoming,pp.277–279).Concentratingonfivecountriesthatparticipatedinthe1998CHEERSstudy,namelySpain,Germany,theNetherlands,theUKandJapan,wewillattempttoreplicatetheresultsofAllenandVanderVelden(2001).Wewillfirstdescribetheextentofeducationalandskillmismatchesandtherelationshipbetweenthetwointhefivecountriesandthenexaminethelabourmarketeffectsofmismatchesintermsofhourlywages,jobsatisfactionandtheintentiontoquit.MethodTwomajorissueswillbeanalysed:Therelationshipbetweentheeducation-jobmatchontheonehandandtheuseofknowledgeandskillsontheother;Theeffectsofeducationalandskillmismatchesonwage,jobsatisfactionandon-the-jobsearch.RelationshipbetweentheEducation-JobMatchandUseofKnowledgeandSkillsSeveralmethodswillbeemployedtomeasuretheextentofmatching.Indeterminingeducationalmismatches,graduateswereaskedtoindicatewhatwasthemostappropriatelevelofcourseofstudy/degree.Answercategorieswere:higher,samelevel,lowertertiarylevel,andbelowtertiarylevel.Graduatesfromuniversitiesandnon-universityHEinstitutionswererepresentedinallfivecountries.EffectsofMismatchesonWage,JobSatisfactionandOn-the-jobSearchSomeregressionmodelswillbeusedtomeasuretheeffectsofeducationalandskillmismatchesonthedependentvariables.Intheexplanatoryanalysis,wewillassesstheeffectsonthefollowingdependentvariables:naturallogarithmofhourlywage,jobsatisfaction,andon-the-jobsearch.Ineachoftheseanalyses,thedependentvariableofthepreviousanalysiswillbeincludedinordertoaccountfortheireffect.Relevantcontrolvariableswillbetakenintoaccount.ConclusionOuranalysesindicatethateducationalandskillmismatchesareindeedrelated,asonewouldexpect.Graduatesworkingbelowtheirleveland/oroutsidetheirownfieldusefewercompetencesthanthosein‘matching’jobs.Graduatesworkingabovetheirleveloroutsidetheirfieldexperiencemoreskillshortagesthanthosein‘matching’jobs.However,educationalmismatchesbynomeansimplymismatchesbetweenavailableandrequiredknowledgeandskills,asclaimedbythejobassignmentmodel.Manygraduatesin‘matching’jobsnonethelessreportskillmismatches.Furthermore,asubstantialproportionof‘overeducated’graduatesreporthighlevelsofskilluseandfewskillshortages.Themultivariateanalysesrevealedstrongwageeffectsofover-education.Thewageeffectsofskillmismatchesweremuchweaker.Interestingly,inGermanyandtheUK,therewerepositivewageeffectsofskillshortages.Thisseemstoindicatethatskillshortagesdonotindicatesomuchabelow-parworkerasahigh-poweredjob.Jobsatisfactionwasinfluencedbybotheducationalandskillmismatches.Thepropensitytochangejobsappearsonlyweaklyrelatedtomismatchesofeitherkind.TheresultsoftheanalysesofjobsatisfactionandpropensitytochangejobsdeviatesomewhatfromthoseofAllenandVanderVelden,whofoundstrongeffectsofskillmismatchesonthesevariables.Theresultswerebroadlysimilaracrossthefivecountries,butthereweresomeinterestingdifferences.Itwasnotablethattheeducation-jobmatchwasbestinthosecountrieswherehighereducationwasstronglygearedtothelabourmarket(GermanyandtheNetherlands),butthattherelationbetweeneducationalandskillmismatcheswasweakestinthosecountries.Furthermore,thewageeffectsofover-educationwerealsorelativelyweakinGermanyandtheNetherlands.Anothernotabledifferencewasthatunder-educatedworkersinGermanyandJapanshowedsurprisinglyhighlevelsofskillshortagesincontrasttotheotherthreecountries.Finally,thepropensitytochangejobswasstronglydependentonbotheducationalandskillsmismatchesinGermanyandtheUK,oneducationalmismatchesinSpainandtheNetherlands,andonneitherinJapan.REFERENCESALBA-RAMIREZ,A.(1993)MismatchintheSpanishlabormarket:overeducation?JournalofHumanResources,27,pp.259–278.ALBA-RAMIREZ,A.&BLáZQUEZ,M.(2003)Typesofjobmatch,overeducationandlabourmobilityinSpainpp.65–93.ALLEN,J.&VANDERVELDEN,R.(2001)Educationalmismatchesversusskillmismatches:effectsonwages,jobsatisfaction,andon-the-jobsearch,OxfordEconomicPapers3,pp.434–452.BECKER,G.S.(1964)HumanCapital:ATheoreticalandEmpiricalAnalysiswithspecialReferencetoEducation(NewYork,NBER).教育不匹配能告訴我們技能不匹配？一次橫越全國分析引言目前有大量的研究文獻(xiàn)，其中涉及各方面的畢業(yè)生的教育程度和教育的工作要求之間的不完善匹配。在經(jīng)濟學(xué)文獻(xiàn)中關(guān)于過度教育，過度使用和使用不足，尤其是在高等教育界在何種程度上提供了畢業(yè)生的知識和技能，以符合就業(yè)需求方面，解釋了較高的教育和就業(yè)之間的關(guān)系（見Borghans&DeGrip，2000;Büchel,DeGrip&Mertens，2003年）。這種匹配被認(rèn)為是影響生產(chǎn)力，收入和工作滿意度。大部分集中在這項研究工作的工作，一個人的教育水平，基本假設(shè)是，這會帶來限制使用技能不匹配的影響。此外，許多研究也考慮到在工作中的工作是必需的，不同的研究領(lǐng)域的影響。本文試圖分析學(xué)到的知識在高等教育對應(yīng)的工作到底有多么需要。中心問題是什么感知的不匹配意味著必需的和可用的技能之間的比賽。教育不匹配必然意味著收購及所需技能之間的不匹配？要回答這個問題，這五個國家參加了1998年芝華仕研究會研究更多的細(xì)節(jié)。將特別關(guān)注這些國家之間的差異。不同于對方在本國的勞動力市場和其較高的教育系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)：西班牙，德國，荷蘭，英國和日本五個國家被選中。有廣泛的信仰差異和這些國家的共同元素。德國和荷蘭的匹配被普遍認(rèn)為是比較接近的國家的例子。在英國和日本，人們普遍認(rèn)為是相當(dāng)松散，間接和雇主往往共通能力提供更大的價值。西班牙是介于兩者之間。這些國家既過剩又不足，教育的發(fā)生率也有很大的不同。雖然令人印象深刻的演變還沒有相匹配的高學(xué)歷人才的供給等量增加供應(yīng)的熟練工職位空缺，國家在這方面顯示各種不同的模式。在一些國家，如英國和德國，有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)過度教育比未受充分教育更加明顯，而在荷蘭和西班牙，一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn)相反（具體見國家研究Dolton&Vignoles,1998;Groot,Maassen&Brink,2000;Alba-Ramirez,1993;Alba-Ramirez&Blásquez,2003;Sloane,2003).理論背景在20世紀(jì)60年代初開發(fā)的人力資本理論用來解釋個人的教育水平和他們在勞動力市場上的盈利之間的關(guān)系。教育發(fā)展技能（“人力資本”），使畢業(yè)生在他們的工作中更富有成效，其中的體現(xiàn)就是能獲得更高的收益(Becker,1964;Mincer,1974)。人力資本理論是基于三個主要命題（Rumberger，1994）：1正規(guī)學(xué)校教育的主要作用是開發(fā)未來的勞動者的人力資本或知識和技能;2勞動力市場能有效地把受過教育的工人分配到公司和需要他們的崗位上去；3勞動者的人力資本提高他們在工作場所的生產(chǎn)力，然后將獲得更高的回報。雖然這一理論的研究成果得到了很好的支持，但是也受到批評。一些批評主要來自強調(diào)勞動力市場需求方的學(xué)者們。這樣的批評它忽略了知識和技能在高等教育的各類重要的質(zhì)的差別。盡管理論上承認(rèn)可應(yīng)用于各種各樣的就業(yè)機會一般技能的差異，然而人的能力和技能有重要的獨立的維度，不僅包括認(rèn)知領(lǐng)域，也有物理和社會領(lǐng)域（加德納，1983）。另一種批評是畢業(yè)生掌握的技能水平和那些在工作場所需要掌握的技能之間不匹配的影響。他們認(rèn)為這會影響生產(chǎn)力和盈利。超過標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的人力資本模型，作業(yè)分配模型與勞動力市場需求方具有非常明確的相關(guān)性，這種模式是由Sattinger在1993年開發(fā)的，它是基于在異構(gòu)工人分配到不同的工作，在他們的復(fù)雜性，有一個分配問題上的主張。被視為最佳的分配時，最能干的工人被分配到最復(fù)雜的工作和能力不足的工人被分配到簡單的工作。換句話說，如果你能在合適的地方得到合適的人，你就可以優(yōu)化收益，提高生產(chǎn)力和工作滿意度等。而在不匹配的情況下，工人或工作的局限性施加不必要的限制，可以實現(xiàn)生產(chǎn)率。低于他們的教育水平工作的員工會發(fā)現(xiàn)，工作的特點施加限制使用他們的技能影響生產(chǎn)率和收入。相反，員工從事在自己的水平以上的工作，缺乏實現(xiàn)作業(yè)的生產(chǎn)潛力所需的技能。分配模型的一個重要假設(shè)是可以被定性為具有固定提供不同類別的教育和就業(yè)機會所需的知識和技能水平。換句話說，教育的不匹配意味著技能不匹配。雖然分配模型本身似乎很有道理，但是這個基本的假設(shè)還是受到質(zhì)疑。荷蘭大學(xué)高等專業(yè)院校的畢業(yè)生的調(diào)查數(shù)據(jù)，阿倫和范德費爾登（2001年）在實際和必要的教育（教育不匹配）和正式之間的不匹配實際和所需的技能（技能錯配）之間做了區(qū)分，并對兩種技能錯配進(jìn)行了審議。畢業(yè)生被問到（1）是否為自己在目前的工作中使用知識和技能（技能使用）提供了足夠的空間。（2）他們是否覺得，如果他們有更多的知識和技能（技能赤字）。那么他們在目前的工作會表現(xiàn)得更好。他們的研究發(fā)現(xiàn)只有一個相當(dāng)薄弱的教育不匹配和這兩種形式的技能不匹配之間的關(guān)系。他們的研究結(jié)果提供了強有力的支持假設(shè)個體人力資本之間的匹配和工作事項的特點。但是，分配理論的假設(shè)相反，教育不匹配的既不是技能不匹配必要條件也不是充分條件。荷蘭畢業(yè)生大量的工作在自己的水平和/或仍然表示，他們利用他們的知識和技能，在他們研究領(lǐng)域密切相關(guān)的工作中取得了很大成績。此外，只有一小部分的教育不匹配的工資效應(yīng)占技能不匹配。這些措施不像教育不匹配對工作的滿意度產(chǎn)生了強烈的負(fù)面影響。C