跨文化交際學(xué)一

Introduction1.Cultureisnothing;cultureiseverything;culturemeansmoreassignments;cultureistofindagoodjob.CultureisasmacroasbeliefsandvaluesCultureisasmicroasagrainofsandCultureisasvisibleaspeopleCultureisasinvisibleasloveWhatisculture?2.GodhelpsthosewhohelpthemselvesIcamefromAlabamawithmybanjoonmyknee,

I’mgonetoLouisiana,mytruelovefortosee.

ItrainedallnightthedayIleft,

Theweatheritwasdry.

ThesunsohotIfrozetodeath,

Susannadon’tyoucry.

Oh!Susanna,oh!Don’tyoucryforme.

I’vecomefromAlabamawithmybanjoonmyknee.

3.Blowin’InTheWind:

Howmanyroadsmustamanwalkdownbeforehe’calledaman?

Howmanyseasmustawhitedovesailbeforehesleepsinthesand?

Howmanytimesmustthecannonballflybeforethey’reforeverbanned?

……

Theanswer,myfriend,,isblowin’inthewind,theanswer

isblowin’inthewind.

4.“Lifeislikeaboxofchocolates,Forrest.Youneverknowwhatyou’regonnaget.”5.Theoriesaboutculture6.

1)Goodenough’swidelyciteddefinitionrunsasfollows(1964:36):

Asociety’scultureconsistsofwhateveritisonehastoknoworbelieveinordertooperateinamanneracceptabletoitsmembers.Cultureisnotanaturalphenomenon;itdoesnotconsistofthings,people’sbehaviororemotions.Itisratheranorganizationofthesethings.Itistheformofthingsthatpeoplehaveinmind,theirmodelsofperceiving,relating,andotherwiseinterpretingthem.7.Cultureis‘a(chǎn)nhistoricallytransmittedpatternofmeaningsembodiedinsymbols,asystemofinheritedconceptionsexpressedinasymbolicformbymeansofwhichmencommunicate,perpetuateanddeveloptheirknowledgeaboutattitudestowardslife’(Geertz,1975:89).8.Muchofthatknowledgeissymbolicallyexpressedinartefactsandbehavioursandisformulatedasrules,norms,expectations,asmoralandlegalcodes,asproverbs,asparentalinjunctionstochildren;butmuchofitistacit,scarcelyconsciousuntilsomeonedoestheunexpected(Hundeide,1985).Themeaningsandnormsimplicitinthesepracticesarenotjustinthemindsoftheactorsbutareoutthereinthepracticesthemselves,practiceswhichcannotbeconceivedasasetofindividualactions,butwhichareessentiallymodesofsocialrelation,ofmutualaction.(Taylor,1971:27)9.BytheseImeannotionsofwhatissignificant,whicharenotjustsharedinthesensethateveryonehasthem,butarealsocommoninthesenseofbeinginthecommonreferenceworld...(Geertz,1971:30)10.Commonmeaningsarethebasisofcommunity.Intersubjectivemeaninggivesapeopleacommonlanguagetotalkaboutsocialreality(Geertz,1971:30)..Culturesaredynamic,markedbychangesinresponsetonewsocietal&environmentalneeds&demands.Thus,culturalchangeisanongoing&continuousprocess(DeCapua&Wintergerst,2004)11.cultureisacompoundentiretyincludingelementsofknowledge,beliefs,arts,laws,morality,customs,andanyotherabilitiesandhabitsthatpeopleobtainfromthesociety.(EdwardTaylor:PrimitiveCulture,1871)B)cultureisnotonly“theacquiredabilityofanindividualorapeopletorecognizeandappreciategenerallyacceptedestheticandintellectualachievementofcivilization”or“aparticularstageofcivilization,asinthecaseofacertainnationorperiod”,butalso“thetotalofhumanbehaviorpatternsandtechnologycommunicatedfromgenerationtogeneration.”(NewWebster'sThirdInternationalDictionary,3dEd.)C)Socialandreligiousstructuresandintellectualandartisticmanifestationsetcthatcharacterizeasociety.(LongmanModernEnglishDictionary)12.Largeculture:themajorproductsandcontributionsofasocietyingeneralorofoutstandingindividualsinthesaidsociety.Withthisapproach,thestudentsoflanguageandculturestudytheeconomical,socialandpoliticalhistoryandthegreatpoliticians,heroes,writers,artists,etcofthecountry.Smallculture:it’stheanthropologicalculture,meaningthelife-waysofapopulation,andwerelateittolanguageandcross-culturalcommunication.Itincludesthreeaspects:thethinkingmodesofaculturalcommunity,thewaythemembersofthatcommunitydealwiththeperson-personrelationship,andtherelationshipbetweenmanandnature.

Sapir&WhorfianHypothesis(Whorf,1956)tellstherelationbetweenlanguageandculture(Kramsch,1988:63).LargeCultureVS.SmallCulture(seeBrooks,1968;Chatian,1976:388;Seelye,1994)13.

InChina,theword,“wen”and“hua”aretwoseparatecharactersandoriginallytheyweretwowords.Atfirst,“wen”meansthemind,education,civilizationwhile“hua”meanscultivationandunderstanding.Lateron,bythetimeoftheWarriorStatesandtheSevenKingdoms,thetwowordswereconnectedtogethertobecomeonewordtorefertothecivilization,educationandalsothelivingandthinkingwaysandmodes,thebehaviours,customsandvalues.(fromZhangDai-nianandFanKe-li,1994:1-3;ChengYu-zhen,1998:3.IntroductiontoChineseCulture)文化14.

TrendofCultureGlobalisationandinternationlisation,scienceanddemocracy,mixedandsharedculturalfeatures(seekingharmonyoutofthedifferences)willbetheoverpoweringingredientsinthefutureculture.Economiccooperation,interculturalcommunicationandcultureexchangeswillbetheessentialinterests.Therenowexistmulti-culturelanguages(eg.AmericanEnglish)andmulti-languagecultures(e.g.Canadiancultures).CulturethroughEnglishcanbedividedintotargetculture,sourceandinternationalculture(Zaid,1999)15.RelevantaspectsofCulturalStudies16.

EasternandWesterncultureHigh-contextculturesrelyonthecontext,eithertheactualphysicalenvironmentofcommunicationoraninternalizedsocialcontextorboth,toconveyalargepartorevenallofthemessage’smeaning.Inlow-contextcultures,themeaningistrustedalmostentirelytowords(EdwardHall,1990;Samovar,1998)RenandLiarethekeyconceptsofConfucianism.Theycomplementandoverlapwitheachother.Liservesasthenormandmeansforachievingtheacceptableendsofsociallife,RenloveandreciprocityandthegoaloflifebasedonkinshiprelationshipsinthepatriarchalChinesesociety.Filialpiety,

collectivism,harmoniousrelationship,powerandauthority,thenormofstatesandidentityarethedominatingaspectsofChineseculture.

17.

Seekingharmony,consensusandbalanceofpowerisaboveeverythingelse.

Meaningissuppressedintheimplicitcodesandsensitivetocontextualcues,forinstance,whosaysandhowtosayaremoreimportantthanwhatissaid.Formeninconfucialism,theresponsibilityisto“behaveproperlyinthepublic;supportthefamilyfinancially;makecontributionstothecountryand

theworld.ForwomeninConfucialism,wehavethe“threeobediences”(beforebeingmarried,obeythefather;afterbeingmarried,obeythehusbandandwhenthehusbanddiesobeytheson)and“fourvirtues”(virtuesofmoralbehaviours,verbalaswellasnon-verballanguage,appearanceandhouseworkskills).18.InTaoiam,allbeingsandthingsarefundamentallyone.Taofocusesonnatureandnaturalorder.

Buddhismischaracterisedbyelevatedhumanityandmorality.Itpresentsreleasefromexistenceasthegreatestgood.Buddhistsbelieveintransmigrationofsoulsthroughallphasesandformsoflife.Theyalsobelievethatlifeispermeatedwithsufferingcausedbydesire,thatsufferingceaseswhendesireceases,andthatenlightenmentobtainedthroughrightconduct,wisdom,andmeditationreleasesonefromdesire,sufferingandrebirth.

19.

EastWestOrientationRelationshipsIndividualismEmphasisObligations/responsibilities/commitmentHumanrights/freedomPurposeHarmonyExtensionofself:e.g.persuasionNatureReciprocal,asymmetricalSymmetricalHierarchical/verticalEqual/horizontalCharacteristicsExpressiveInstrumentalIndebtednessContractualOther/listenerorientedSelf-orientedFaceandfaceworkLessfaceandfaceworkInterdependentIndependentComplementaryCompetitiveTolerantIntolerantPersonallyknownintermediariesProfessionalintermediariesSympatheticandempatheticObjectiveIn-groupandout-groupdistinctionIn-groupandout-groupindistinction20.

EastWestPersonalrelationshipsandpublicPersonalrelationshipsandrelationshipsoverlappublicrelationshipsseparateLongtermandstablerelationshipsShorttermandunstablerelationshipsWholepersonorientedRoleorientedPersonalImpersonalShowingconcernShowingconsideration/noimpositionMakinguseofrelationshipsNotmakinguseofrelationshipsAllowedfromidealroleenactmentNotallowedfromidealroleenactment21.EastWest

DiscourseCyclical/spiralLinear,chain-like

ClimaxingAnti-climaxing

Emphasisonoutcome/result/whatEmphasisonprocess/how;

Processofsolvingproblems

FewercohesivedevicesEmphasisontheuseofcohesion

NonverbalSilenceisgold.Negativeattitudetosilence22.Smallscalechangesininitialconditionscanproducemassiveandunpredictablechangesinoutcome.2.Verysimilarinitialconditionscanproduceverydissimilaroutcomes.3.Regularityanduniformitybreakdownintoirregularityanddiversity.4.Effectsarenotstraightforwardandcontinuousfunctionsofcauses.5.Theuniverseislargelyunpredictable.6.Ifsomethingworksoncethereisnoguaranteethatitwillworkinthesamewayasecondtime.7.Determinismisreplacedbyindeterminism.8.Continuityisreplacedbydiscontinuity.9.Therearenolongeranygrandtheoriestoexplainphenomena.10.Long-termpredictionisimpossible.ChaosTheory23.ModernismandPostmodernism

ModernismPostmodernism

LargeSmallHierarchicalFlattermanagementBureaucraticTeamworkDepartmentalisedMulti-teammembershipClosedOpenDemarcated.FlexibleboundariesSpecialised.MultipleabilitiesMechanisticOrganic/flexible/changingStandardised/inflexibleFlexible/niche-targetedFordistPost-FordistTechnocratic/impersonalPerson-centred-ProducercaptureConsumeristGrandplanNometa-narrativesSimilarity/continuityDifference/discontinuityAbsolutistvaluesRelativistvaluesControllingSelf-organising/autonomyPredictabilityUnpredictabilityDeterministic-Indeterminate24.3.MechanicalSystemsandOrganicSystems

Mechanical(movesfrom…into…)organic

EmphasisonindividualsEmphasisonrelationshipsObediencetoauthorityandMutualtrustandstatusinhierarchyconfidenceRigidadherencetoSharedresponsibilityanddelegatedresponsibilityinterdependenceCentraliseddecision-Membershipofcross-makingfunctionalteamsConflictmanagementConflictmanagementthroughcontrol/suppressionthroughproblem-solvingRigidjobspecificationsandFewspecificjobstandardpracticesspecificationsFormalchannelsofFormalandinformalcommunication