胡壯麟《語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》第四版筆記

-PAGE69–Chapter1InvitationstoLinguistics1.3 Designfeaturesoflanguage Thefeaturesthatdefineourhumanlanguagescanbecalleddesignfeatureswhichcandistinguishhumanlanguagefromanyanimalsystemofcommunication. 1.3.1 ArbitrarinessArbitrarinessreferstothefactthattheformsoflinguisticsignsbearnonaturalrelationshiptotheirmeanings. 1.3.2 DualityDualityreferstothepropertyofhavingtwolevelsofstructures,suchthatunitsoftheprimarylevelarecomposedofelementsofthesecondarylevelandeachofthetwolevelshasitsownprinciplesoforganization. 1.3.3 CreativityCreativitymeansthatlanguageisresourcefulbecauseofitsdualityanditsrecursiveness.Recursivenessreferstotherulewhichcanbeappliedrepeatedlywithoutanydefinitelimit.Therecursivenatureoflanguageprovidesatheoreticalbasisforthepossibilityofcreatingendlesssentences. 1.3.4 DisplacementDisplacementmeansthathumanlanguagesenabletheiruserstosymbolizeobjects,eventsandconceptswhicharenotpresent(intimeandspace)atthemomentofconversation.加1Discreteness（可分離性）Eachsoundinthelanguageistreatedasdiscrete.加2Iconicity擬象性:thedirect/non-arbitrary/non-symbolicrelationbetweenmeaningandform.Thereareresemblancesbetweenthelanguageformandwhattheyreferto.Thatrelationshipiscalledicon.Iconicityexistsinsounds,lexiconsandsyntax.Itisthemotivationbetweenlanguageformsandmeanings.Itisarelationofresemblancebetweenlanguageformandwhattheyreferto.1.5 Functionsoflanguage AsisproposedbyJacobson,languagehassixfunctions: 1. Referential:toconveymessageandinformation; 2. Poetic:toindulgeinlanguageforitsownsake; 3. Emotive:toexpressattitudes,feelingsandemotions; 4. Conative:topersuadeandinfluenceothersthroughcommandsandentreaties; 5. Phatic:toestablishcommunionwithothers; 6. Metalingual:toclearupintentions,wordsandmeanings. Halliday(1994)proposesatheoryofmetafunctionsoflanguage.Itmeansthatlanguagehasthreemetafunctions:1. Ideationalfunction:toconveynewinformation,tocommunicateacontentthatisunknowntothehearer;2. Interpersonalfunction:embodyingalluseoflanguagetoexpresssocialandpersonalrelationships;3. Textualfunction:referringtothefactthatlanguagehasmechanismstomakeanystretchofspokenandwrittendiscourseintoacoherentandunifiedtextandmakealivingpassagedifferentfromarandomlistofsentences.AccordingtoHuZhuanglin,languagehasatleastsevenfunctions:1.5.1 Informative Theinformativefunctionmeanslanguageistheinstrumentofthoughtandpeopleoftenuseittocommunicatenewinformation.1.5.2 Interpersonalfunction Theinterpersonalfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetoestablishandmaintaintheirstatusinasociety.1.5.3 Performative Theperformativefunctionoflanguageisprimarilytochangethesocialstatusofpersons,asinmarriageceremonies,thesentencingofcriminals,theblessingofchildren,thenamingofashipatalaunchingceremony,andthecursingofenemies.1.5.4 Emotivefunction Theemotivefunctionisoneofthemostpowerfulusesoflanguagebecauseitissocrucialinchangingtheemotionalstatusofanaudiencefororagainstsomeoneorsomething.1.5.5 Phaticcommunion Thephaticcommunionmeanspeoplealwaysusesomesmall,seeminglymeaninglessexpressionssuchasGoodmorning,Godblessyou,Niceday,etc.,tomaintainacomfortablerelationshipbetweenpeoplewithoutanyfactualcontent.1.5.6 Recreationalfunction Therecreationalfunctionmeanspeopleuselanguageforthesheerjoyofusingit,suchasababy’sbabblingorachanter’schanting.1.5.7 Metalingualfunction Themetalingualfunctionmeanspeoplecanuselanguagetotalkaboutitself.E.g.Icanusetheword“book”totalkaboutabook,andIcanalsousetheexpression“thewordbook”totalkaboutthesign“b-o-o-k”itself.1.6 Whatislinguistics? Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotjustonelanguageofanyonecommunity,butthelanguageofallhumanbeings.1.7 Mainbranchesoflinguistics 1.7.1 PhoneticsPhoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds,itincludesthreemainareas:articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,andauditoryphonetics. 1.7.2 PhonologyPhonologystudiestherulesgoverningthestructure,distribution,andsequencingofspeechsoundsandtheshapeofsyllables. 1.7.3 MorphologyMorphologystudiestheminimalunitsofmeaning–morphemesandword-formationprocesses. 1.7.4 SyntaxSyntaxreferstotherulesgoverningthewaywordsarecombinedtoformsentencesinalanguage,orsimply,thestudyoftheformationofsentences. 1.7.5 Semantics Semanticsexamineshowmeaningisencodedinalanguage. 1.7.6 Pragmatics Pragmaticsisthestudyofmeaningincontext.1.8 Macrolinguistics 1.8.1 Psycholinguistics 1.8.2 Sociolinguistics 1.8.3 Anthropologicallinguistics 1.8.4 Computationallinguistics1.9 Importantdistinctionsinlinguistics 1.9.1 Descriptivevs.prescriptiveTosaythatlinguisticsisadescriptivescienceistosaythatthelinguisttriestodiscoverandrecordtherulestowhichthemembersofalanguage-communityactuallyconformanddoesnotseektoimposeuponthemotherrules,ornorms,ofcorrectness.Prescriptivelinguisticsaimstolaydownrulesforthecorrectuseoflanguageandsettlethedisputesoverusageonceandforall.Forexample,“Don’tsayX.”isaprescriptivecommand;“Peopledon’tsayX.”isadescriptivestatement.Thedistinctionliesinprescribinghowthingsoughttobeanddescribinghowthingsare.Inthe18thcentury,allthemainEuropeanlanguageswerestudiedprescriptively.However,modernlinguisticsismostlydescriptivebecausethenatureoflinguisticsasasciencedeterminesitspreoccupationwithdescriptioninsteadofprescription. 1.9.2 Synchronicvs.diachronicAsynchronicstudytakesafixedinstant(usuallyatpresent)asitspointofobservation.Saussure’sdiachronicdescriptionisthestudyofalanguagethroughthecourseofitshistory.E.g.astudyofthefeaturesoftheEnglishusedinShakespeare’stimewouldbesynchronic,andastudyofthechangesEnglishhasundergonesincethenwouldbeadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyseemstoenjoypriorityoverdiachronicstudy.Thereasonisthatunlessthevariousstateofalanguagearesuccessfullystudieditwouldbedifficulttodescribethechangesthathavetakenplaceinitshistoricaldevelopment. 1.9.3 Langue&paroleSaussuredistinguishedthelinguisticcompetenceofthespeakerandtheactualphenomenaordataoflinguisticsaslangueandparole.Langueisrelativestableandsystematic,paroleissubjecttopersonalandsituationalconstraints;langueisnotspokenbyanindividual,paroleisalwaysanaturallyoccurringevent.Whatalinguistshoulddo,accordingtoSaussure,istodrawrulesfromamassofconfusedfacts,i.e.todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningallinstancesofparoleandmakethemthesubjectoflinguistics. 1.9.4 CompetenceandperformanceAccordingtoChomsky,alanguageuser’sunderlyingknowledgeaboutthesystemofrulesiscalledthelinguisticcompetence,andtheactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituationsiscalledperformance.Competenceenablesaspeakertoproduceandunderstandandindefinitenumberofsentencesandtorecognizegrammaticalmistakesandambiguities.Aspeaker’scompetenceisstablewhilehisperformanceisofteninfluencedbypsychologicalandsocialfactors.Soaspeaker’sperformancedoesnotalwaysmatchhissupposedcompetence.Chomskybelievesthatlinguistsoughttostudycompetence,ratherthanperformance.Chomsky’scompetence-performancedistinctionisnotexactlythesameas,thoughsimilarto,Saussure’slangue-paroledistinction.Langueisasocialproductandasetofconventionsofacommunity,whilecompetenceisdeemedasapropertyofmindofeachindividual.SaussurelooksatlanguagemorefromasociologicalorsociolinguisticpointofviewthanChomskysincethelatterdealswithhisissuespsychologicallyorpsycholinguistically. 1.9.5 Eticvs.emicBeingeticmeansresearchers’makingfartoomany,aswellasbehaviorallyandinconsequential,differentiations,justasoftenthecasewithphoneticsvs.phonemicsanalysisinlinguisticsproper.Anemicsetofspeechactsandeventsmustbeonethatisvalidatedasmeaningfulviafinalresourcetothenativemembersofaspeechcommunityratherthanviaappealtotheinvestigator’singenuityorintuitionalone.Chapter2SpeechSounds2.1 Speechproductionandperception Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsounds.Itincludesthreemainareas: 1. Articulatoryphonetics–thestudyoftheproductionofspeechsounds2. Acousticphonetics–thestudyofthephysicalpropertiesofthesoundsproducedinspeech 3. Auditoryphonetics–thestudyofperceptionofspeechsounds Mostphoneticiansareinterestedinarticulatoryphonetics.2.3 Segments,divergences,andphonetictranscription2.3.2 PhonetictranscriptionInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA):thesystemofsymbolsforrepresentingthepronunciationofwordsinanylanguageaccordingtotheprinciplesoftheInternationalPhoneticAssociation.Thesymbolsconsistoflettersanddiacritics.SomelettersaretakenfromtheRomanalphabet,somearespecialsymbols.2.4 Consonants 2.4.3 Mannersofarticulation1. Stop/plosive:2. Fricative:3. (Median)approximant:4. Lateral(approximant): 2.4.4 Placesofarticulation 1. Bilabial:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwolips.2. Labiodental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththelowerlipandtheupperfrontteeth.3. Dental:Aspeechsoundwhichismadebythetonguetiporbladeandtheupperfrontteeth.4. Alveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladeandthealveolarridge.5. Postalveolar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetipandthebackofthealveolarridge.6. Retroflex:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetonguetiporbladecurledbacksothattheundersideofthetonguetiporbladeformsastricturewiththebackofthealveolarridgeorthehardpalate.7. Palatal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththefrontofthetongueandthehardpalate.8. Velar:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandthesoftpalate.9. Uvular:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththebackofthetongueandtheuvula,theshortprojectionofthesofttissueandmuscleattheposteriorendofthevelum.10. Pharyngeal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththerootofthetongueandthewallsofthepharynx.11. Glottal:Aspeechsoundwhichismadewiththetwopiecesofvocalfoldspushedtowardseachother. 2.4.5 TheconsonantsofEnglishReceivedPronunciation(RP):ThetypeofBritishStandardEnglishpronunciationwhichhasbeenregardedastheprestigevarietyandwhichshowsnoregionalvariation.Ithasoftenbeenpopularlyreferredtoas“BBCEnglish”or“OxfordEnglish”becauseitiswidelyusedintheprivatesectoroftheeducationsystemandspokenbymostnewsreadersoftheBBCnetwork.AchartofEnglishconsonantsMannerofarticulationPlaceofarticulationBilabialLabio-dentalDentalAlveolarPost-alveolarPalatalVelarGlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricate[p]voicelessbilabialstop[b]voicedbilabialstop[s]voicelessalveolarfricative[z]voicedalveolarfricative[m]bilabialnasal[n]alveolarnasal[l]alveolarlateral[j]palatalapproximant[h]glottalfricative[r]alveolarapproximantChapter3Lexicon3.1 Whatisword? 1. Whatisalexeme?Alexemeisthesmallestunitinthemeaningsystemofalanguagethatcanbedistinguishedfromothersimilarunits.Itisanabstractunit.Itcanoccurinmanydifferentformsinactualspokenorwrittensentences,andisregardedasthesamelexemeevenwheninflected.E.g.theword“write”isthelexemeof“write,writes,wrote,writingandwritten.” 2. Whatisamorpheme?Amorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.E.g.theword“boxes”hastwomorphemes:“box”and“es,”neitherofwhichpermitsfurtherdivisionoranalysisshapesifwedon’twanttosacrificeitsmeaning. 3. Whatisanallomorph?Anallomorphisthealternateshapesofthesamemorpheme.E.g.thevariantsoftheplurality“-s”makestheallomorphsthereofinthefollowingexamples:map–maps,mouse–mice,ox–oxen,tooth–teeth,etc. 4. Whatisaword?Awordisthesmallestofthelinguisticunitsthatcanconstitute,byitself,acompleteutteranceinspeechorwriting. 3.1.1 Threesensesof“word” 1. Aphysicallydefinableunit 2. Thecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms 3. Agrammaticalunit 3.1.2 Identificationofwords 1. Stability 2. Relativeuninterruptibility 3. Aminimumfreeform 3.1.3 Classificationofwords 1. Variableandinvariablewords 2. Grammaticalwordsandlexicalwords 3. Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords 4. Wordclass3.2 Theformationofword 3.2.1 MorphemeandmorphologyMorphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed. 3.2.2 Typesofmorphemes 1. FreemorphemeandboundmorphemeFreemorphemes:Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,thosewhichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,arefreemorphemes.Boundmorphemes:Thosewhichmustappearwithatleastanothermorphemearecalledboundmorphemes. 2. Root,affixandstemArootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzed.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme.Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded. 3. InflectionalaffixandderivationalaffixInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.Thedistinctionbetweeninflectionalaffixesandderivationalaffixesissometimesknownasadistinctionbetweeninflectionalmorphemesandderivationalmorphemes.Wecantellthedifferencebetweenthemwiththefollowingways:(1) Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem.E.g.toys,walks,John’s,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning.E.g.cite,citation,etc.(2) Inflectionalaffixesdon’tchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.(3) Inflectionalaffixesareoftenconditionedbynonsemanticlinguisticfactorsoutsidethewordtheyattachtobutwithinthephraseorsentence.E.g.thechoiceoflikesin“Theboylikestonavigateontheinternet.”isdeterminedbythesubjecttheboyinthesentence,whereasderivationalaffixesaremoreoftenbasedonsimplemeaningdistinctions.E.g.Thechoiceofcleverandclevernessdependsonwhetherwewanttotalkabouttheproperty“clever”orwewanttotalkabout“thestateofbeingclever.”(4) InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal.E.g.drums,walks,etc.Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixesorsuffixes.E.g.depart,teacher,etc. 3.2.3 Inflectionandwordformation 1. InflectionInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached. 2. WordformationWordformationreferstotheprocessofwordvariationssignalinglexicalrelationships.Itcanbefurthersubclassifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andderivationaltype(derivation). (1) CompoundCompoundsrefertothosewordsthatconsistofmorethanonelexicalmorpheme,orthewaytojointwoseparatewordstoproduceasingleform,suchasice-cream,sunrise,paperbag,railway,rest-room,simple-minded,wedding-ring,etc.Theheadofanominaloranadjectivalendocentriccompoundisdeverbal,thatis,itisderivedfromaverb.Consequently,itisalsocalledaverbalcompoundorasyntheticcompound.Usually,thefirstmemberisaparticipantoftheprocessverb.E.g.Nouns:self-control,pain-killer,etc.Adjectives:virus-sensitive,machinewashable,etc.TheexocentriccompoundsareformedbyV+N,V+A,andV+P,whereastheexocentriccomefromV+NandV+A.E.g.Nouns:playboy,cutthroat,etc.Adjectives:breakneck,walk-in,etc. (2) DerivationDerivationshowstherelationbetweenrootsandsuffixes.Incontrastwithinflections,derivationscanmakethewordclassoftheoriginalwordeitherchangedorunchanged. 3.2.4 Thecounterpointofphonologyandmorphology 1. Allomorph:Anyofthedifferentformsofamorpheme.2. Morphophonology/morphophonemics:Morphophonologyisabranchoflinguisticsreferringtotheanalysisandclassificationofthephonologicalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofmorphemes,andcorrespondingly,thegrammaticalfactorsthataffecttheappearanceofphonemes.Itisalsocalledmorphonologyormorphonemics.3. Assimilation:Assimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation.4. Dissimilation:Dissimilationreferstotheinfluenceexercisedbyonesoundsegmentuponthearticulationofanother,sothatthesoundsbecomelessalike,ordifferent.3.3 Lexicalchange 3.3.1 Lexicalchangeproper 1. InventionSinceeconomicactivitiesarethemostimportantanddynamicinhumanlife,manynewlexicalitemscomedirectlyfromtheconsumeritems,theirproducersortheirbrandnames. 2. BlendingBlendingisarelativelycomplexformofcompounding,inwhichtwowordsareblendedbyjoiningtheinitialpartofthefirstwordandthefinalpartofthesecondword,orbyjoiningtheinitialpartsofthetwowords. 3. Abbreviation/clippingAnewwordiscreatedbycuttingthefinalpart,cuttingtheinitialpartorcuttingboththeinitialpartsoftheoriginalwords. 4. AcronymAcronymismadeupfromthefirstlettersofthenameofanorganization,whichhasaheavilymodifiedheadword. 5. Back-formationBack-formationreferstoanabnormaltypeofword-formationwhereashorterwordisderivedbydeletinganimagedaffixfromalongerformalreadyinthelanguage. 6. AnalogicalcreationTheprincipleofanalogicalcreationcanaccountfortheco-existenceoftwoforms,regularandirregular,intheconjugationofsomeEnglishverbs. 7. BorrowingEnglishinitsdevelopmenthasmanagedtowidenhervocabularybyborrowingwordsfromotherlanguages.Greek,Latin,French,Spanish,Arabicandotherlanguageshaveallplayedanactiveroleinthisprocess. 3.3.2 Phonologicalchange 1. LossThelossofsoundcanfirstrefertothedisappearanceoftheverysoundasaphonemeinthephonologicalsystem.Thelossofsoundsmayalsooccurinutterancesattheexpenseofsomeunstressedwords. 2. AdditionSoundsmaybelostbuttheymayalsobeaddedtotheoriginalsoundsequence. 3. MetathesisMetathesisisaprocessinvolvinganalternationinthesequenceofsounds.Metathesishadbeenoriginallyaperformanceerror,whichwasoverlookedandacceptedbythespeechcommunity. 4. AssimilationAssimilationreferstothechangeofasoundasaresultoftheinfluenceofanadjacentsound,whichismorespecificallycalled“contact”or“contiguous”assimilation. 3.3.3 Morpho-syntacticalchange 1. Morphologicalchange Theformofinflectionalaffixesmayalsochange. 2. Syntacticalchange Therearemoreinstancesofchangesinthesyntacticalfeaturesofwords 3.3.4 Semanticchange 1. BroadeningBroadeningisaprocesstoextendorelevatethemeaningfromitsspecificsensetoarelativelygeneralone. 2. NarrowingContrarytobroadening,theoriginalmeaningofawordcanbenarrowedorrestrictedtoaspecificsense. 3. MeaningshiftAllsemanticchangesinvolvemeaningshift.Heremeaningshiftisunderstoodinitsnarrowsense,i.e.thechangeofmeaninghasnothingtodowithgeneralizationorrestrictionasmentionedabove. 4. ClassshiftByshiftingthewordclassonecanchangethemeaningofawordfromaconcreteentityornotiontoaprocessorattribution.Thisprocessofwordformationisalsoknownaszero-derivation,orconversion. 5. FolketymologyFolketymologyreferstoachangeinformofawordorphrase,resultingfromanincorrectpopularnotionoftheoriginormeaningofthetermorfromtheinfluenceofmorefamiliartermsmistakenlytakentobeanalogous. 3.3.5 OrthographicchangeChangescanalsobefoundatthegraphiticlevel.SincewritingisarecordingofthesoundsysteminEnglish,phonologicalchangeswillnodoubtsetoffgraphiticchanges.EndofChapter3

Chapter4Syntax4.1 Thetraditionalapproach 4.1.1 Number,genderandcase 4.1.2 Tenseandaspect[Forthesetwosections,pleaseconsultmaterialsontraditionalEnglishgrammar.–icywarmtea] 4.1.3 ConcordandgovernmentConcord(a.k.a.agreement)maybedefinedastherequirementthattheformsoftwoormorewordsinasyntacticrelationshipshouldagreewitheachotherintermsofsomecategories.E.g.inEnglishthedeterminerandthenounitprecedesshouldconcordinnumberasinthisman,thesemen.Andtheformofasubjectshouldagreewiththatoftheverbintermsofnumberinthepresenttense,e.g.HespeaksEnglish;TheyspeakEnglish.Governmentisanothertypeofcontrolovertheformofsomewordsbyotherwordsincertainsyntacticconstruction.Itdiffersfromconcordinthatthisisarelationshipinwhichawordofacertainclassdeterminestheformofothersintermsofcertaincategory.E.g.inEnglish,thepronounafteraverboraprepositionshouldbeintheobjectformasinShegavehimabook;Shegaveabooktohim.Inotherwords,theverb,orthepreposition,governstheformofthepronounafterit.Theformeristhegovernor,andthelatteristhegoverned.4.2 Thestructuralapproach 4.2.1 SyntagmaticandparadigmaticrelationsSyntagmatic(a.k.a.horizontal/chain)relationisarelationbetweenoneitemandothersinasequence,orbetweenelementswhichareallpresent,suchastherelationbetweenweatherandtheothersinthefollowingsentence:Iftheweatherisnice,we’llgoout.Paradigmatic(a.k.a.vertical/choice)relationisarelationholdingbetweenelementsreplaceablewitheachotherataparticularplaceinastructure,orbetweenoneelementpresentandtheothersabsent. 4.2.2 Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis) 1. HowtodoitImmediateconstituentsareconstituentsimmediately,directly,belowthelevelofaconstruction,whichmaybeasentenceorawordgrouporaword.Immediateconstituentanalysis,ICanalysisforshort,referstotheanalysisofasentenceintermsofitsimmediateconstituents–wordgroups(phrases),whichareinturnanalyzedintotheimmediateconstituentsoftheirown,andtheprocessgoesonuntiltheultimatesakeofconvenience.TheICanalysisofasentencemaybecarriedoutwithbracketsorshownwithatreediagram.E.g.PoorJohnranaway.→(1)((Poor)(John))((ran)(away)).(2) PoorJohnranaway2. ItsadvantagesThroughICanalysis,theinternalstructureofasentencemaybedemonstratedclearly,anyambiguities,ifany,willberevealedinthatICanalysisemphasizesnotonlythelinearstructureofthesentencebutalsothehierarchicalstructureofthesentence.E.g.thesentenceLeavethebookontheshelf.isambiguous.Ithastwomeanings:(1)Putthebookontheshelf;(2)Don’ttouchthebookontheshelf.Thesetwomeaningscanbeshownbythefollowingtreediagrams.(Omitted.Seethetextbookp125~128.)3. ItsproblemsHowever,ICanalysishasthreedisadvantages.First,atthebeginning,someadvocatorinsistedonbinarydivisions.Anyconstruction,atanylevel,willbecutintotwoparts.Butthisisnotpossible.E.g.Oldmenandwomenisambiguousinthatitmaymeanold+menandwomenoroldmen+andwomen.It’simpossibletocombinewithonlytheprecedingpartoronlythesucceedingpart.Second,constructionswithdiscontinuousconstituentswillposetechnicalproblemsfortreediagramsinICanalysis.E.g.thephrasalverbslikemakeup,turnon,orgiveupwillcauseproblemsinthatwhentheobjectisexpressedbyapronoun,itwillinterruptthephrasalverbasinmakeitup.ThemostseriousproblemisthattherearestructuralambiguitieswhichcannotberevealedbyICanalysis.E.g.thetreediagramandthelabelscanonlydooneanalysisfortheloveofGod. 4.2.3 EndocentricandexocentricconstructionsAnendocentricconstructionisonewhosedistributionisfunctionallyequivalent,orapproachingequivalence,tooneofitsconstituents,whichservesasthecenter,orhead,ofthewhole.Itisalsocalledheadedconstruction.Typicalendocentricconstructionsarenounphrases,verbphrasesandadjectivephrases.Theymaybefurtherdividedintotwosubtypes:subordinateandcoordinateconstructions.Those,inwhichthereisonlyonehead,withtheheadbeingdominantandtheotherconstructionsdependent,aresubordinateconstructions.Inthecoordinateconstruction,therearemorethanonehead,e.g.boysandgirls,inwhichthetwocontentconstituents,boysandgirls,areofequalsyntacticstatus,andnooneisdependentontheother.Theexocentricconstructionisdefinednegativelyasaconstructionwhosedistributionisnotfunctionallyequivalenttoanyofitsconstituents.Thereisnonoticeablecenterorheadinit.Typicalexocentricconstructionsareprepositionalphrases,subordinateclauses,Englishbasicsentences,andtheverbplusobjectconstructions.4.3 Thegenerativeapproach 4.3.1 DeepandsurfacestructuresIntransformationalgenerativegrammar(a.k.a.T-Ggrammar),thedeepstructuremaybedefinedastheabstractrepresentationofthesyntacticpropertiesofaconstruction,i.e.theunderlyinglevelofstructuralrelationsbetweenitsdifferentconstituents,suchastherelationbetweentheunderlyingsubjectanditsverb,oraverbanditsobject.Thesurfacesstructureisthefinalstageinthesyntacticderivationofaconstruct