淺談英語委婉語及其社會影響

淺談英語委婉語及其社會影響

[Abstract]Languagecommunicationisanimportantmethodtomaintainsocialrelationship,sopeopleoftenusetheindirectorpleasantexpressionsintheplaceofthoseconsideredunpleasant,rudeoroffensiveincommunication.Itisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoakindofsocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Itreflectssomekindsofcorrespondingculturaltraditions.Thispapermainlyfocusesonthewaysofexpression,themajorfunctionandthesocialinfluenceofeuphemisminEnglish.AndthefirstpartelaboratesuponthedifferentexpressionsofeuphemisminEnglish,dividedintofourparts:figureofspeech,semanticmethod,thevarietyofpronunciationandspellingformandgrammar.Andthenitmakesstudytheapplianceofeuphemismonthreefunctions:avoidance,courtesy,disguiseinsociallife,anddiscussesthepositiveandnegativeinfluencesofeuphemism.Toknowthesecouldhelpustounderstandthemodeofthinking,socialvalues,moralconcepts,andculturaltraditionsinEnglish-speakingcountry,andcouldimproveourlanguagecommunicativeability.

[Keywords]:Euphemism,application,socialinfluence,positive,negative

【摘要】語言交際是人類以維系社會關系的重要手段，因而人們在交際中通常避免使用引起雙方不快從而損害雙方關系的語言，而是采取迂回曲折的方法來表達思想，交流信息，它不僅是種語言現(xiàn)象，而且是社會現(xiàn)象和文化現(xiàn)象。委婉語言體現(xiàn)了相應的社會文化傳統(tǒng)。本文主要闡述了英語委婉語的構成方法以及它的社會影響，并著重從修辭手段，語義手段，構詞手段及語法手段對委婉語言作了較全面的分析，并對委婉語在交際中的語用功能和表達方式做了一些探討，從委婉語的“避諱”功能，“禮貌”功能和“掩飾”功能三個方面探討了委婉語在社會生活中的運用，了解委婉語在運用中的積極作用和消極作用,有助于我們更深入的了解英語國家人們的思維方式、社會價值觀、道德觀以及文化風俗，對于提高自身言語交際功能是十分必要的。

【關鍵詞】委婉語；運用；社會影響;積極；消極

1.Introduction

EuphemismisoriginallyfromGreek,meaning,“speakwithgookwords”.“eu”means“wellorsoundingwell”;“pheme”means“speech”.ItsdefinitioninOxfordEnglishDictionaryis“(exampleofthe)useofpleasant,mild,orindirectwordsorphrasesinplaceofmoreaccurateordirectones.”[1]

Theappearanceofeuphemismisbasedontworeasons:oneaimstotaketheplaceof“taboo”.Whengivingupatabooword,peoplewillfindanothernewonetotaketheplaceofit,whichcreatesaeuphemism.Theotheraimstoavoidoffensivenessduringthecommunication.Itisafigureofrhetoricbywhichanunpleasantoroffensivethingisdescribedorreferredtobyamilderterm.

InEnglishlanguage,euphemismiswidelyusedinthedailycommunications.Inordertoachievetheaimof“taboo”,itisusedtoavoidtheunpleasantthing;inordertoachievetheaimof“politeness”,itisusedtoavoidtheinelegantthings,whicharethetwosocialpsychologicalbasisoftheemergenceofeuphemism.Euphemismisoneoftheimportantpartsoffigureofspeech.Itisnotonlyalinguisticphenomenon,butalsoakindofsocialphenomenonandculturalphenomenon.Euphemisminusediffersfrompersontoperson,fromprofessiontoprofession,evenfromclasstoclass,That’swhysometimesthemeaningofsomeeuphemismswillpuzzleyouifyoudonotknowthebackgroundofEnglishculture.TograsptheEnglisheuphemismcannotonlyhelpusopenoureyes,butstrengthenourabilityofreadingcomprehension.ThispaperaimstodiscusstheapplicationofeuphemisminEnglishandtomakeacknowledgeofitssocialinfluence,whichcouldhelpususeeuphemisminacorrectway.

2.Waystoexpresseuphemism

Figureofspeech

Metonymy.

Thatistousethegeneralwordstotaketheplaceoftheconcretewords.“Passedaway”whichrefersto“dead”belongstometonymy.Itcanbedividedintothefollowingforms:1)tousethecontainertotaketheplaceofthethingsinthecontainer.Forexample:“tobefondofthebottle”isaeuphemismfor“l(fā)ikingtodrink”.2)Tousetheentiretyinsteadofthepart.Forexample:“abdomen”isusedtoreferto“belly”;“l(fā)imb”refersto“l(fā)eg”.Forsomespecialoccasions,thepartcanbeusedinsteadoftheentirety.InAustralianEnglish“anoldhand”isaeuphemismfor“anoldprisoner”.3)Tousethetoolstotaketheplaceoftheobjects.Forexample,“pick”isatoolofpryingthelock.Itcanreferto“thief”.4)Touserawmaterialstotaketheplaceoffinishedproducts.Forinstance,“poppy”isakindofflower,butitalsorefersto“opium”.5)Tousecharacteristicstotaketheplaceofobjects.Forexample,“hellow”isagreetingword,anditisalsoaeuphemismfor“prostitute”becauseprostitutesoftenusethiswordtosolicitthewhoremasters;“bloodandiron”isaeuphemismfor“violence”.6)Touseproperwordstoreplacetheobjects.Forexample,“napoleon”isaFrenchgoldencoinonwhichthereisNapoleon’sheadportrait.“Borstal”isanameofcountrysideinKentinBritain.Itcanalsoreferto“juveniledelinquency”.

Sometimes,someeuphemismsarefrequentlyusedinsteadoftheoriginalwords;peoplegraduallyforgettheireuphemisticidentities.Theyarenotusedintermsofeuphemismsbuthavetheirownindependentmeanings.Forinstance,takeabove-mentioned“poppy”,nowifyoulookupthiswordinthedictionary,youcanfindthemeaningof“opium”,ithaslostitseuphemisticfunction.And,ifyoudonotknowthebackground,youcannotknowthemeaningof“Napoleon”and“Borstal”.Therefore,wecanseetheimportanceofknowingthebackgroundofEnglishculture.Itcanhelpyoualottorecognizeandunderstandtherealmeaningofeuphemismandmakegooduseofit.

Metaphor

Tousemetaphorcaneasilyavoidtheoffensivethings.Forexample,whereforeitisbettertobeaguestofthelaw,which,thoughconductedbyrules,doesnotmeddleundulywithagentleman’sprivateaffairs.(O.Henry,TheCopandtheAnthem)“tobeaguestofthelaw”isaeuphemismfor“tobeinprison”,Manyeuphemismsfor“death”werecreatedbywayofmetaphor,suchasgoingtohislonghome,tobehomeandfree,togotosleep,tosleepthelong(oreternal,never-ending)sleep,torestinpeace,tobeatrest,togotoHeaven(orParadise),tojoinone’sancestors,tobegatheredtoone’sfathers,tojointheimmortals.Moreexamplesare:aged→sunsetyears,tobepoor→tobepinched,tohaveimpropersexualintercoursewithgirls(especiallymaiden)→todeflower;todegenerate→togoastray;breast→milkbottles;catamenia→theredflag;tobepregnant→tobeonthenest;themoneyofbribery→grease;tobribe→togreasesomebody’spalm;handcuffs→bracelets.

Personification

People’snamesareoftenusedtoreplacetaboowords.Forexample,“BigHarry”refersto“heroin”because“Harry”and“heroin”havethesameinitials.“Lavatory”alsohasmanyeuphemisticalexpressions.In19thcentury,itwascalled“myauntJones”,“Mrs.Jones”,“SirJohn”,“SirHarry”,“theHenry”,whilein20thcentury,itwascalled“jakes”,“john”etc.Butthelattercolorofpersonificationbecomesweak.Thefirstlettercanbewritteninsmallletter.Peoplejustuseitasacommonnoun.Infact,theyhavelosttheeuphemisticfunction.Therearemanyhumorouswaystoexpresscatameniaintermsofpersonification:1)Myfriendhascome.2)Ihaveavisitor.3)Mycousins/countrycousinshavecome.4)Myauntie/grandmotherhascometostay.5)Littlesisterishere.6)I’vegotpaintersin.7)thecardinalhascome.

Analogy

Intheeuphemismsforoccupationpeopleoftenuseanalogy,whichmakesthehumblenamemoreelegant,Forexample,“chef”isaeuphemismfor“cook”.ItisborrowedfromFrenchword“chefdecuisine”.“Beautician”refersto“hairdresser”;“garbologist”refersto“garbagecollector”;“mortician”refersto“undertaker”.Therealsoappearedsomebeautifulnamesforbarbershop:hairsalon,beautyparlour,andstylistparlour.

Ellipsis

Thatistoomittheoffensivewordswhilespeaking,suchastobeexpecting(ababy),tohave(sexual)relationswithsomebody,totakeprecautions(againstpregnancy),todepart(fromthisworld).Ofcourse,suchphrasesshouldbeputintoacertaincontext,whichcanexpressthemeaningofeuphemisms.

Periphrasis

Itisanexpressionofbeatingaroundthebush.Thoughitisamuddledacting,itsaimistoavoidoffendingothers,andtobemorepolite.Ifsomeoneaskedawomanwhethershewasknittingatinygarment,hemeantthathewonderedwhethershewaspregnant.Suchwayofspeakingishumorous,sweetandagreeable,suchastodie→tocloseone’seyes,toexpire,tobreatheone’slast;todefecateandtourinate→towashone’shands,toeaseorrelieveoneself,todoone’sbusiness;tocourt→togowalking;tobepregnant→toeatfortwo;lavatory→washroom,cloakroom;fart→windfrombehind;women’sunderclothes→unmentionables;trousers→nethergarments;askyoutogoaway→callyourcarriageforyou;todismiss→togivesomebodythesack;tobeinprison→toliveatthegovernment‘sexpense.Teachersoftenusethisexpressiontoavoidthestudents’andtheirparents’awkwardness.Forexample,lazinessiscalled“needingamplesupervisioninordertoworkwell”;“cheat”isdescribedas“needinghelpinlearningtoadheretorulesandstandardsoffairplay”;“l(fā)ies”iscalled“showingdifficultyindistinguishingbetweenimaginaryandfactualmaterial”;“steal”iscalled“needinghelpinlearningtorespectthepropertyrightsofothers”;“beabully”refersto“havingqualitiesofleadershipbutneedshelpinlearningtousethemdemocratically”;“dirty”iscalled“belackofproperhealthhabits”.

Semanticmethod

Synonym

Forexample,“tight”isusedinsteadof“stingy”;“thrift”isusedinsteadof“economical”,“defecate”replaces“shift”and“urine”replaces“piss”.And“mad”isreplacedby“crazy”,“insane”,and“l(fā)unatic”.Sucheuphemismaimstousetheappreciativetermtotaketheplaceofthederogatoryterm.

Negation

Sucheuphemismusesthecontrarytermtoexpressthesamemeaning,anditcouldbemoreusefulthansynonyminreplacingthetabooandmakepeoplemoreunderstandableandcomfortable.Wecouldcallstupidpeopleunwisepeople.“Afatchance”means“aslimchance”and“findwords”standsfor“badwords”

Vaguewordsandexpressions

Thatistomaketheharsheroroffensivewordsmoregeneral.Forexample,ifsomebodyhassomementalproblems,wecanexpressitlikethis:Hisroofleaksalittle;hehasascrewloose/missing;heisnotathome.Thereareotherexampleswhichusevagueexpressions,suchasdisease→trouble,problem;tocomeacrossanunfortunatething→tohaveanaccident;V.D.(venerealdisease)→secretdisease;tolivetogetherillegally→tocohabit;intrauterinedevice→ring;torapesomebody→todoviolencetosomebody;prostitute→awomanofthestreets,awomanofacertainclass,apaintedwoman,aladyofthenightgirl;toentertainwhorehousevisitors→toseecompany;whorehouse→house;asquint→anobliquityofvision;amanofbadtaste→amanofdoubtfultaste;strike→industrialaction;thepoor→theunderprivileged,thedisadvantaged;indebt→indifficulties;buttocks→behind,bottom,backsides;homosexual→queer;sexualintercourse→intimacy;tobekilled→tobeputtosleep.

Loanwords

BecausefromtheperiodofRenaissance,Latin,Greek,andFrenchareconsideredasculturedwords.Peopleconsiderthatthoselanguagesaremoreelegant,tactfulandambiguous.Intheearly19thcentury,nomatterinBritainorAmerica,peopleusedFrenchword“enceinte”insteadofEnglishword“pregnant”.Itispopulartillnowbecausetheformerismoreelegant,tactfulandambiguous.EnglishborrowswordsnotonlyfromFrenchbutalsofromotherlanguagesinmanykindsofwaystocreateitsowneuphemism.Forexample,“l(fā)avatory”wasborrowedfromLatinword“l(fā)avatorium”,butitlostitsmeaningofeuphemismbecauseoflong-timeusing.Therefore,peopleborrowedanothereuphemismfromFrench“toilette”whichwasrespelledinto“toilet”,anditbecamethemostpopulareuphemismreferringtolavatory.Frenchwords“chemise”and“l(fā)ingerie”areeuphemismsfor“underwear”and“blouse”respectively.“sushi”wasborrowedfromJapanese“すし”.ItsoriginalmeaningisakindofJapanesefood.Peopleputitintoaphrase“alittletonguesushi”,whichmeans“tonguekissing”.Theabovewordsmostlybelongtothecommonvocabulary.Inaddition,euphemismsalsoborrowsomescienceandtechnologicalwordsandacademicwordsthatarecold,clinicandantiseptic.SuchwordsaremainlyfromLatinandGreek.Forexample,Latinword“coitus”isaeuphemismfor“fuck”;Nativewords“shit”and“piss”arealldirtywords,whileLatinword“defecation”andGreekword“urination”areallacceptedeasily.

Understatement

Thatistostatesomeseriousthingsinatemperatewayinordertoavoidbeingawkwardandstrident.Forexample,“Shewasneitherquiteprettynorquietplain.”“Plain”isusedinsteadof“ugly”;“MycousinJimmywasabitsoftinthehead.”“Softinthehead”means“mad”;“Theboyusedtotakethingswithoutpermissionandhasjustbeenoutoftherehabilitationhomeinthecountry.”(steal,detentionhome);theperiodofeconomicdepression→aperiodofeconomicadjustment;moneyforbribery→kickback,commission;poorfamilies→lowincomefamilies;fallingbehind→lessadvanced;retardedchildren→lessablechildren;anuglygirl→aplainorhomelygirl;disabled→physicallyhandicapped;tobeill→tolookoffcolor,tofeelunwelloruncomfortable;treatment→healthcare;oldage→advancedinage.

Thevarietyofpronunciationandspellingform

Englishisanalphabeticwriting.Thevariationofphoneticformcanavoidtheoriginalconceptioninacertaindegreeandachievethepurposeofeuphemism.1)Compounding:gezunda(goesunder).2)Acronym:DA(drugaddict),KG(knowgambler),(balanceoftime),(juveniledelinquent),PandQ(peaceandquiet).3)Back-formation:burgle(burgler)4)chipping:vamp(vampire),homo(homosexual),gents(Gentlemen’sRoom),andladies(LadiesRoom)[10].

Thereisaninterestingexample:“l(fā)aboratory”,theoriginalstresswasonthefirstsyllable.Butitsoundedsimilarlyto“l(fā)avatory”.Inordertoavoidtheunpleasantconnection,thestresswasmovedtothesecondsyllable.SuchphenomenoniscalledAssonance.Thatistomakeuseofortocreatewords,whichhavethesameorsimilarpronunciationswitheuphemisticwordsinordertoachievethepurposeofeuphemism.Therefore,inEnglishthereisawayofpersonificationtoexpress“catamenia”:Thecaptainisathome.Itisbecause“captain”isassonantwiththemedicalscienceterm“catamenia”.InoralEnglish,“pee”isusedtoreferto“piss”,whichhasthesamereason.

Grammar

Thatistousepasttense,negativesentencetoexpresseuphemism.Forexample,Icanseebyyourfacethatyoudon’tthinkthatwaswise.Thenegativeformmeans“thinkingthatwasfoolish”;“Howdowefeeltoday?”Using“we”insteadof“you”showsthemoderationandgeniality.“Iwantedto…”“Iwondered…”oftentaketheplaceof“Iwantto…”“Iwonder…”SuchexpressionisoftenusedinoralEnglish.[11]

3TheSocialInfluencesofEuphemism

EuphemismiswidelyusedinAmericaandBritain.Ithasalonghistory.Neweuphemismsemergeinanendlessstream.Accordingtoitsappliedfunctions,I’dliketodivideitintothreeparts:Avoidance,CourtesyandDisguise.Throughstudyingthethreefunctions,wecanunderstandthewesternsociety’sviewonvalueandmorality.

Avoidance

TheearliestsubjectofEuphemismisreligious[12].Theconceptionoftabooisdeep-rootedinpeople’smind,anditisnoteasytoremove.TheappearanceoftaboocoulddatebacktoancientGreekandancientRoman.Inhuman’seyesGodownsasuperpowerthatcouldcontroleverything.Becausefearingofthesecretpower,Peopleuseeuphemismtoavoidmentioningtheguilty,unpleasant,rudeoroffensivewords,whichplaysaroleofpurifyinglanguages.Forexample,EuropeanAmericansavoidspeaking“Friday”and“13”.Whenthetwothingsappearinthesameday,itisanillomen.Andthereisanexample:thereappearedanepisodein1972whenPresidentNicosonvisitedChina.ChinesePremierZhouwenttoShanghaitoreceiveAmericanvisitors.HefoundthatMr.andMrs.NicosonwerearrangedtoliveinRoom15,KissingerinRoom14,butsomestatecouncilorsinRoom13?TheWesternpeopleoftentakeNumber13asataboo.Afterenteringtheirapartments,PremierZhouwasawarethattheseWesternvisitorsseemedunhappy.Soheexplained:”itisapitythatwehavemadeaseriousmistake.WeignoredthespecialWesternculture.”Hecontinued,”TherewasanoldChinesefablethatwhenamanwasafraidofghost,themorehethought,themorehefeltterrified.Atthetimehefeltnofear,hebegantolookfortheghost,buttheghostdisappeared…Number13inWesternculturelookedliketheChineseghost.”Hearinghisstory,theAmericanvisitorslaughedheartily.Atlasttheycooleddown.Fromthisexample,wecanrealizethenecessityoftheculturalinfiltrationinlanguagecommunication.Sowemustpayattentiontothesocialinfluenceofeuphemism.Thisavoidancefunctionisthefirstcommunicationfunctionofeuphemisms[13].Suchfunctionisoftenusedinthefollowingsituations:

TheeuphemismsforGodanddevil

TheTenCommandmentsofBiblehasprescribed,“ThoushaltnottakethenameoftheLordthyGodinvain;fortheLordwillnotholdhimguiltlessthattakethhisnameinvain.”That’swhytherearesomanyeuphemisms.InoralEnglish,using“God”causallywouldbeconsideredblasphmous.Ifsomeonesay“Goddamniit”heistreasonandheresy,andwouldbepunished[14].Someofthemadoptthesemanticmethod,suchastheCreator,theMaker,theSupreme(Being),HolyOne,theAlmighty,theEternal,OurFather,theSaviour,KingofKings,Lordoflords,theLightoftheWorld,SovereignoftheUniverse.Someofthemadoptthephoneticmethod,suchasGad,Gosh,Golly,Godfreyetc.Therearemanyeuphemismsfor“thedevil”,suchasoldenemy,oldNed,OldNick,OldOne,Ole’un(OldMan),OldScratch,OldSerpent,theOldBoyetc.Forexample,“HewasfrightenedasifOldHarrywerebeforehim.”InEnglishtheyoftenuse“heck”insteadof“hell”.“hell”hasotherexpressions:“theotherplace,averyuncomfortableplace,theotherwayetc.”Forexample,“WewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven;wewereallgoingdirecttheotherway.”[15]

Theeuphemismsfordeath

Euphemismisoftencausedinspeakingofthingsthatarepainfulanddistressingtothinkabout.Deathisoneofexpressions.Theeuphemismsfordeathareawidelyuseditem,especiallywhenitconcernsone’sownfamiliesandfriends.Ithasalotofexpressions[16].Forexample,ifanythingshouldhappentome(=whenIdie);topassaway/on;todepart;togotosleep;tobenolongerwithus;tobeinterred.“Death”alsohassomehumorousexpressions:“topopoff;topushupdaisies;tocashinone’schips;tokickthebucket”.“Death”alsohasanintimaterelationshipwithreligion.TherearemanyeuphemismsfromBible,forexample,toreturntodust/earth;topaythedebtofnature;tobecalledtoGod/toanswerthefinalsummons;togotoheaven;tobeatpeace,tobeasleepintheArmsofGod;toyielduptheghost;tolaunchintoeternity;tohaveone’snameinscribedintheBookoflifeetc.Somewords,whichconcern“death”,alsohaveeuphemisticexpressions.Forexample,“coffin”iscalled“casket”;“deadbody”iscalled“earthlyremains”;“funeral”iscalled“memorialservice”;“graveyard”iscalled“memorygarden”.

Theeuphemismsforillness,naturalandman-madecalamities

Mostwesternersavoidtalkingaboutsomeseriousdiseases.Forinstance,“terminallyill”isaeuphemismfor“cancer”;AmericanandBritishnewspapersoftenname“syphilis”as“socialdisease”;“l(fā)eprosy”iscalled“Hansen’sdisease”;“constipation”iscalled“irregularity”.“tumour”iscalled“agrowth”;“commitsuicide”iscalled“self-deliveranceorself-violence”.Peopleoftenuseinitialingtoavoidtalkaboutsomediseasesdirectly,suchasAIDS(AcquiredImmuneDeficiencySyndrome);BigC(Cancer);VD(VenerealDisease)etc.“todiebecauseofacrash”iscalled“oldNewtontookhim”;“hara-kiri”iscalled“happydispatch”;“anunnaturaldeath”iscalled“tobeblownacrossthecreek”

Theeuphemismsforsex

Nearlyalllanguagesconsider“sex”atabooword.Inthewest,whenchildrenaskedtheirparentswheretheycamefrom,theirparentsoftenansweredthebabywasavisitfromthestork.Peoplecansay“pregnant”insteadof“expecting”or“inthefamilyway”;“fart”isalsowrittenintothedictionary.Youcansayitdirectlyinsteadofsaying,“windfrombehind”Itisjustbecauseofthemovementof“sexliberty”and“sexliberation”.Peoplecanhaveafreertalkabout“sex”thanVictorianage.Onthecontrary,someotherneweuphemismsforsexappearedoneafteranother.“Sexualknowledge”iscalled“factsoflife”;“pornographicmovies”iscalled“adultfilms”;“cohabitation”hasbecomeverycommoninwesternsociety.Itisalsocalledakindofmarriage:“trialmarriage”or“unmarriedwife”.Nevertheless,withthesharpincreaseoftherateofdivorce,thereappearedmanyeuphemismsfordivorce:“tobreakup”,“tosplitup,and“matchruptcy”(ablendingof“match”and“bankruptcy”).Andthehomosexualitywouldbecalled“Greekarts”,“queer”,“gay”.Thereisanotherinterestingphrase“togotoReno”.“Reno”,asmallcityinthewestofNevada,isfamousforitseasyandfastproceduresofdivorce.So“togotoReno”alsobecomesaeuphemismfordivorce.

Theeuphemismsforbirth

ContrarytotheChinesetraditionalopinion,inwesterncountries,“beingpregnant”and“havingababy”arenotconsidered“ablessedevent”.AustralianEnglishevencallit“ablastedevent”.InAmerica,“toweartheapronhigh”,“towear/havethebellyhigh”areeuphemismsfor“tobepregnant”,whileinBritain,“towearthebustlewrong”isaeuphemismfor“tobepregnant”.In19thcentury,aslimwaististheidealfigureforBritishwomen.Therefore,“tobepregnant”isalsocalled“tobeawkward”,“inabadway/shape”;“tomakeawomanpregnant”iscalled“tospoil/ruinawoman’sshape”.Someoneevencalled“tobepregnant”“tobecaught”or“tobefallen”.Somevagueexpressionsalsoshowakindofrestlessmood,suchas:thatway,inacertain/particular/delicateconditionetc.Theuseofhumorisanotherfeatureofeuphemismfor“beingpregnant”.Americanpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveawatermelononthevine”,or“toswallowawatermelonseed”.Britishpeoplearelikelytosay“tohaveabunintheoven”or“tohaveanIrishtoothache”(tomakefunofIrishpeoplewhoarepregnantascommonlyashavingatoothache).

Courtesy

Anotherreasontouseeuphemismisthatitavoidstheharshanddirectwordinapoliteway,andmakesthesentencesoundmorepleasant.Tograspthepolitefunctionofeuphemismcanhelpyoubuildagoodrelationshipwithothers.Thepolitefunctionsareespeciallyreflectedintheoccupations,ortrades.ItrelatewithPolitenessPrincipleofLeech[17].Itisobviousthatadvertisementisaimedathelpingbusinessmenpropagandatheirgoods,forthesakeofsolicitingcustoms.Asapleasantway,usingeuphemismsinadvertisementshasbecomemoreandmorewidespread.Now,“secondhandstore”hasbeenreplacedby“resalestore”,“super”,“giant”,“special”,suchwords,havebecomemorepopular.Moreover,wecanoftenseethesamephenomenonabouttheexpressionsforclassesofcabins.Todefendpassengers’honor,“FirstClass”ischangedto“DeluxeClass”,“SecondClass”isto“FirstClass”,“ThirdClass”to“BusinessClass”,and“EconomicClass”to“TouristClass”.Thisfunctionundoubtlyplaysanactiveroleofimprovingtheprogressofsociety:

Theeuphemismfortheofficeandtrade

Forexample,“mentalhospitalormentalhealthcenter”isaeuphemismfor“madhouse”;“mortuaryorfuneral”isaeuphemismofdeadhouse.Somesmallcompaniesorsmallenterprisesliketousetheword“industry”,suchashotelindustry,touristindustry,garageindustry,women’sbeautyindustryetc.

Theeuphemismforoccupation

Inordertopromotethesocialstatusoftheoccupation,almosteveryhumbleoccupationhasasweet-soundingname.Therearemainlytwoforms:

1).Compound.Thatistochoosesomesweet-soundingoccupationalnamestomakeupcompoundorcompoundphrases.Forexample,todaywecanfindmanyoccupationsinAmericaandBritainnamedwith“engineer”:sanitary(orsanitation)engineer;building(custodian,dwelling)engineer;automobileengineer;drycleaningengineer,pipeengineer;heatingengineer;packingengineer;salesengineer;housewife→domesticengineer;thepersonwhoisinchargeofkillingmiceandcockroaches→exterminating(extermination)engineer.Therearesomeothercommontitles:automotiverepairman→automotiveinternist;gardenworker→landscapearchitect;prisonguard→correctionalofficer;pest-killer→pestcontroloperator;butcher→meattechnologist.Somehumbleoccupationshavemanyeuphemisticnamesatthesametime.Forexample,peopleoftencall“hairstylist”“tonsorialartist”,whilepeoplecall“femalehairdresser”“womansurgeon”;“undertaker”alsohasmanyexpressions:bereavementcounselor,grieftherapist,funeraldirector,funeralservicepractitioner.Besides“engineer”housewifealsocanbecalled“householdexecutive”,“homemaker”,even“domesticmanager”;“Prostitute”alsohasmanyeuphemisms,suchaspavementprincess,workinggirl,streetwalker,callgirl,businessgirletc.

2).Derivation.ThatistochoosesomeLatinandGreekprefixeswhosemeaningsreferto“aperson”,suchas“-(o)logist”.“mixologist”isaeuphemismfor“abar’swaiter”;dustmanforgarbologist;femalehairdresserforcosmetologist;undertakerformortician;cobblerforshoetrician;locksmithforlocktician.Somespecialoccupationalnameshaveadoptedtwoprefixes.Forexamplecosmetologistandcosmeticianbothreferto“femalehairdresser”.Moreover,Latinprefix“-arian”isoriginallyusedinreligion,butnowitisalsousedintheoccupation,suchas:bartarian,sanitarian.AnotherLatinprefix“-ian”isalsousedpopularly,suchascustodian(entranceguardordustman).Somepeopleevenwanttochangethenativeprefix“-er”totheLatinprefix“-or”becausetheythinktheforeignprefixismoreelegantandsweet-sounding,suchasweldor,wildanimaltrainor.

Theeuphemismsfortheagedandweight

Theage,especiallyawoman’sageisregardedasasensitiveprivacy.Andmostofthewesternpeopleareafraidofgettingold,sotheycall“oldpeople”“seniorcitizens”.”oldage”and“senility”caneasilycausethefearoftheoldpeople.Someeuphemisticexpressionstaketheplaceofthem,suchas“gettingon(inyears),pastone’sprime,feelingone’sage,secondchildhood,adistinguishedgentleman,agrandedame,thirdage”.