英文跨文化溝通復習資料

TheimportanceoflearningaboutcultureUnderstandingforeignculturesisnotonlyimportantforpaniesthatoperateinmorethanoneglobalareaandmarketinternationally.Itisjustimportantfororganizationsathomethatemployworkersfrommorethanoneculture.Understandingcultureisalsoimportantforindividualswhoworkintheglobalworkplace.3.thetwoimportantreasonsforunderstandingculturearetolearnhowothersmakesenseof（搞清.的意思）theirenvironment,andtopreventmistakesandmismunications.對待差異的態(tài)度（RespondingtoDifferentCultures）：〔.hostility（敵對）todifference2.CuriosityaboutdifferenceDenyingdifference:Assumptionsofsuperiority（優(yōu)越）；Ethnocertrism（民族中心論）；AssumptionsofuniversalitycooperatingwithdifferenceMinimizeandpreventmistakesacrosscultures:1.Knowledgeaboutone’sownculture,withthis,knowledgeaboutanothercultureiseasiertolearn.2.motivation,thedrivetoknowandtousetheknowledge.3.implementing（貫徹）knowledge,andbehavinginawaythatmakessenseintheotherculture,theoneinwhichyouwanttodobusiness.cultureisthecoherent,,sharedviewofagroupofpeopleaboutlife’sconcerns,expressedinsymbolsandactivities,thatrankswhatisimportant,furnishes（提供）attitudesaboutwhatthingsareappropriate,anddictatesbehavior.文化三特征:1Coherent:eachculture,pastorpresent,iscoherentandpletewithinitself—anentireviewoftheuniverse2.Learned:cultureisnotsomethingwebornwith3.Theviewofagroupofpeople:issharedbyasociety.三功能：I.Rankswhatisimportant:teachesvaluesorpriorities.2.FurnishesAttitudes:attitudesarebasedonbeliefsaswellasonvalues.3Dictateshowtobehave:behavioresdirectlyfromattitudesabouthowsignificantsomethingis-howitisvalued.6.Onstageandbackstage:Onstagecultureisthebehaviorwedisplay,itiseasytochange.（interchangeable）Backstagecultureisnotsovisible,itisdifficulttochange.（theessenceofpeople’sculture）/.Transactionculture:atransactioncultureexistswheninteractantsrespondtoculturalcuesandmodifytheirownbehavior,creating-orco-creating—anew,temporaryculture.（調(diào)整行為，適應(yīng)對方or共同產(chǎn)生新行為）Theamountofadjustedbehaviordependsonseveralfactors:1theirlevelofknowledgeabouttheotherculture2theirwillingnesstoexperimentwithnewbehaviorsandattitudes3theirpreviousexperiencewithsuccessfulinterculturalinteractions.8.Cultureshock:Cultureshockisthesenseofdislocation（轉(zhuǎn)位）andtheproblems-psychologicalandevenphysical-thatresultfromthestressoftryingtomakethehundredsofadjustmentsnecessaryforlivinginaforeignculture./.Transactionculture四個階段：1.Experiencinganewcultureisusuallyeuphoria（欣快）2.Downturnasdisillusionment（幻義）andfrustration（沮喪）egration（融合）Euphoria:everythingabouttheexcitingnewadventureiswonderful—nolongertwoweeks.Thesecondstageisadownturnasdisillusionmentandfrustrationarise.Itisafeelingofnotbeinginstepwiththemembersoftheculture.Adjustment.---asthesojourner（寄居者）learnsmoreaboutthebackstagecultureandhowtheothercultureworks,heorsheisabletocooperatemoreeffectivelywithmembersofthehostculture.thefourthstage,integration,occurswhenasojournerbeesfluentenoughintheotherculturetomoveeasilywithinitandnotbethrownbythedifferentattitudes,beliefs,andvalues,andthebehaviorstheygenerate.Reversecultureshock:asimilaradjustmentperiodwithitsacpanyingsymptomsusuallyoccurswhenasojournerreturnsa9.Self-knowledgeandunderstandingone’sownculture:Havingagoodunderstandingofone’sowncultureisthebestfoundationfordevelopingtheabilitytounderstandthemunicationbehaviorofpeoplefromothercultures.Toachieveit——Mentalrepresentation:usementalcategoriesthatholdinformationitemsgroupedtogether.MentalRepresentation三個心里表征：prejudice（racism，ageism）;bias;discriminationPrejudicegeneralizationsthatarebasedonlimitedknowledge,andthatexpressanevaluation-usuallynegative-areprejudices.Biasabiasforsomethingisreallynothingmorethanapreference.AbiasagainstsomethingisanegativeattitudethatranksitlowDiscriminationwhenbiasesorprejudicesareactedon,theactorisshowingdiscrimination.Discriminationistheactofsifting（過濾）outandselectingaccordingtobiastowardsomethingorsomeone,andtreatingthemdifferently.Areculturesmergingintooneglobalculture"（文化定義；onstage，backstage）Approachestostudyingcultures:1.focusonacultureasawhole（emicstudies一個文化不同層面，eticstudies多種文化的共性）2focusonindividual（individualsmayhaveanynumberofexperiences,personalinsights,personalgoals,interestsandexpectationsthatarepartoftheiridetities.EmicstudiesStudiesthatconcentrateononeculturealonearecalledemicstudies.EticstudiesStudiesthatlookforfactorsthatexistinmorethanoneculturearecalledeticstudies.CulturalgeneralizationsStudiesaboutwholeculturegiveusconclusionsthataregeneralizationsabouttheculture.CulturaldimensionsCharacteristicsthatcouldbethebasisofparisonsfromculturetocultureiscalledculturaldimensions.Stereotypes:Stereotypingmeansusingoversimplifiedgeneralizationstounderstandpeople1stereotypesarefixed,firm,inflexiblementalcategories2prototypes（原型）aretheoriginalconceptsormodelsforsomething.3norareallstereotypesbad,somearepositive.Self-identity:identityisassthformedinpartbytheselfandinpartbygroupmembership.Self-conceptcanbeformedinthreegeneralways.①SocialPsychology——experience.②munication---coresymbols,labelsandnorms.③Critical---socialcontexts（history,economics,polities,publicdiscourse）.Self-construal（自我建構(gòu)）ishowweseeourselvesinrelationtoothers,withregardtofeelings,thoughts,andbehavior.Ingeneral,westernculturehaveanindependentself-construal,andeasterncultureshaveaninterdependent（相互依賴的）self-construal.Individualismvaluesindividualachievements,failures,andrightsoverthecollective.Collectivismvaluesthegroupabovetheindividual,andindividualshavearesponsibilitytothegroupthatsupersedes（取代）individualneedsorrights.文化維度語境：a.高High-contextculturesrelyonthecontext,eithertheactualphysicalenvironmentofmunicationoraninternalized（內(nèi)在化的）socialcontext,orboth,toconveyalargepartorevenallofamessage’smeaning.Itiselliptical省略的，indirect，allusive（暗指的）.低:Low-contextculturesentrust（委托）themeaningalmostentirethewords.itisexplicit，direct,pletely.集體個人a.定義b集體-關(guān)系導向型，個人-結(jié)果導向型c.Acharacteristicofindividualistcultureispetitiveness;thecorrespondingvalueincollectivistculturesiscooperation.Collectivism:relationships,old,permanent,public,highpowerdistance（hierarchical）,high-contextculture,hideemotion,cooperation,harmony,dependence.Individualism:results,youth,temporary,private,lowpowerdistance（horizontal）,low-contextculture,expressEmotion,petitiveness,independence.權(quán)力距離：Powerdistanceisthedegreetowhichless-powerfulmembersofanorganizationtolerateunequaldistributionofpower,say,betweenmanagersandemployees.cultureswithasmallerpowerdistancearemorehorizontal,lesshierarchical,andlessauthoritarianthanarecultureswithahighpowerdistance.Cultureswithhighpowerdistanceareinequalityinpower,lesshorizontal,morehierarchical,andmoreauthoritarian.High-contextcultures:valuerelationships,teamwork,andlong-termgroupmembership.Itrelyonsubjectiveinformationthatisinternalized（elliptical,indirect,allusive）.Low-contextcultures:valueindependentdecisions,activitythatachievesgoals,andindividualaccountability（explicit,direct,pletely）.Highculturereferstothoseculturalactivitiesthatareoftenthedomainoftheeliteorwell-to-do:ballet,sumphony,opera,greatliterature,andfineart.International;timeless;transcendent（超然的）；Lowculturereferstotheactivitiesofthenonelite:musicvideos,gameshows,professionalwrestling,stockcarracing,graffitiart,tvtalkshows,andsoon.Wherecaninformationaboutculturesbefound:1.askpeoplewhoaremembersofthecultureyouwanttounderstand.2.Anothergoodsourcemaybesomeonewhohasspentconsiderabletimeinthatculturebutisnotanativememberofit.3.Youcaninquire（詢問）intoaculturebyreadingfictionfromthatculture.4.findoutwhatpeopleofaculturesayaboutthemselves.5.Informationaboutculturesalsoesfromstudiesbyanthropologistswhoresearchculturesinthefield,goingtoliveamongthemembersoftheculturetheywanttounderstand.DoesKnowingefromConceptsorExperience:1.knowingbysecondhandinformationfromareliablesource.2.inEnglish-speakingorEuropeancultures,abstract（提?。﹗ition（知覺）,meditation（冥想）DoesLearningefromAskingQuestionsorMasteringReceivedWisdom:1.IntheUnitedStates,studentswhoaskquestionsarerewarded.2.InmanyculturesinAsia,LatinAmerica,theMiddleEast,andSouthernEurope,learningmeansreceivingandtakinginwhatisgivenbyteachers.DoesKnowledgeHaveLimits:themoreyoulearn,thelessyouknow.E.g.nonscientistswhohavefaithinwhatsciencecanachieveHowDoPeopleReason:1.Westernculturesprimarily（首先）useacause-and-effectpatternofthinking.（LinearLogic）;twooppositethingscannotbothbetrue.2.Otherculturesuseotherpatterns.（SpiralLogic）a.InAsian:thinkingislinkage;theoppositesco-existIsDoingImportantorIsBeingImportant:1.Doing:westerncultures:activity-oriented,peaceoflife,crowdedagendas（日程）.2.Being:stillness,collectedness,serenity（平靜），silence（membersofdoingculturesviewsilenceaswaste,membersofculturesthatvaluebeingalsooftenvaluesilence）.AreTasksDoneSequentiallyorSimultaneously:1.performingtasksone-by-oneinasequence誤解disorganized2.performingmultipletaskssimultaneously誤解；inflexibleDoResultsorRelationshipsTakePriority1.Individulism:a.cause-and-effect,goals-oriented,tomakeprogress（進步）.b.identifygoalsandworktowardthemc.Strategytoachievement.d.measurehowcloseyouhaveecollectivism:a.relationship-orientedb.Valuetherelationshipasameanstoanend.IsUncertainty（不確定性）AvoidedorTolerated:1.uncertainty-averse:Doing:avoiduncertainty,strivetoprotectthemselvesfromtheunknown2.uncertaimty-tolerant:Being,tolerantuncertainty;bemoreopentoacceptingtheunexcepted.IsLuckanEssentialFactororanIrrelevance:1.Luckisirrelevant,inculturesthatthinkincause-and-effectpatternsandthatvalueresults,planning—notluck—isthekeytosuccess.2.Insomecultures,luckorfateordestinyplaysalargepart,peoplesroleinachievingsuccesshaslesseffectthanforcesoutsidethemselves.AreRulestoBeFollowedorBent:1.Followed:neat，predictablebehavior,uncertainavoidance（逃避）.2.Bent:flexibilitytomeethumanneeds;uncertain（無常的）tolerance.IsChangePositiveorNegative:1.ThecultureoftheUnitedStatesthinksofchangeasdesirableandpositive.Newmeansbetter.2.Traditionally,agrarianculturestypicallyviewchangeisnegative.Itmeansdisruption（破壞）totheestablishedpatternsoflife.IsDeaththeEndofLifeorPartofLife:Someculturesviewdeathastheendoflife,aquenching（熄火）ofthelight.Itisdreaded（令■人畏懼的）.Someculturesviewdeathasanotherphaseinlife,anecessarystepinthepatternoflife.Itisaccepted.簡36.RelationshipbetweenLanguageandculture:1.cultureandlanguageareintertwined（纏繞的）andshapeeachother.Itisimpossibletoseparatethetwo.2.Alllanguageshavesocialquestionsandinformationquestions.3.Languagereflectstheenvironmentinwhichwelive;languagereflectsculturalvalues;Sometimesdifferentculturesuseidenticalwordsthathaveratherdifferentmeanings.不重視語言的問題1.Acronyms（首字母縮略詞）2.implicationofthelanguagebarrier.（字同音不同，異國異含義）Selectionoftherightlanguage:1.LinguisticConsiderations2.BusinessConsiderations3.PoliticalConsiderations4.TheAppropriateLevelofFluencymunicationwithnonnativespeakers:EffectiveFace-to-Facemunication:a.enunciateb.speakslowlyc.AvoidSlangandColloquialisms（白話）d.BeCarefulaboutJokes.e.BeSincereg.BeCulturallySensitiveh.KeepaSenseofHumorEffectiveWrittenmunicationa.UsePlentyofWhiteSpaceb.UseCorrectTitlesandSpellingsofNamesc.UnderstandPatternsofOrganizationd.UseHeadingse.BeCarefulwithNumbersf.BeCarefulwithDatesg.AvoidAbbreviationsh.FollowtheConventionsofWrittenmunication41.技術(shù)對溝通的影響：1.telephone；2.skype3.Email,textingandtwitters非語言交流影響因素：1.Culturalbackground2.socialeconomicbackground3.Education4.Gender5.Age6.Personalpreferencesandidiosyncrasies（特質(zhì)）Paralanguage1.vocalqualifiers:Thetermvocalqualifiersreferstovolume（音量），pitch（音高），andtheoverallintonation（聲調(diào)）ormelody（旋律）ofthespokenword.2.vocalization:Allculturesusenonwordnoisessuchasahem,um,er,suckinginone’sbreath,andclickingone’stongue.Nonverbalbusinessconventions:1.eyecontact（asignofhonesty/privacy）2.Facialexpression（不同文化頻率frequency強度intensity不同a.smiling（indicatejoy,embarrassmentoravoidembarrassment.）b.showinganger（milderform-frowning;hideanger）3.gesture（head/armmovements;posture）4.timinginspokenexchanges（anenvironmentthatemphasizesequality;seniorityandhierarchy;theroleofmen.）5.touching（peoplefromlow-contextculturestendtobefeelcrowdedbypeoplefromhigh-contextcultures,andpeoplefromhigh-contextculturesfeelleftoutandrejectedbypeoplefromlow-contextcultures.6.Thelanguageofspace（private/office/publicspace）7.Appearance（a.不同國家穿衣風格不同b.inmostcultures,dressalsoidentifiesapersonasbelongingtoaspecificgro叩andhavingacertainstatus.）8.Silence:（高語境文化更傾向于使用沉默，低語境：silenceoftenisinterpretedastheabsenceofmunication）Signalsofrespect:itcanbedifferentfromculturetoculture,anditmaytakesometimetolearnwhatisexceptedbehavior.PositionsofauthorityDressasasymbolofauthority46權(quán)威的象征：1.toneandbehavior2.Language（indicator）3.Familyandsocietalstructures（indicator）Assertiveness（魄力）v.sHarmony.:1.standingupforone’sownrights（individualism,lowpowerdistance）2.Preservingharmony（collectivism,highpowerdistance）47績效的認可及獎勵：1.monetaryrecognition2.nonmonetaryrewards48自我認同1.Self-identity—ASocialPsychologyApproach:（experiences）wecanthinkaboutself-conceptisthatwebuildupoursenseofselffromchildhood,basedonexperienceswehavehadthatcontributetooursenseofself.2.Self-identity—AmunicationApproach（munication）：Identities（身份）aremunicatedincoresymbols,labels,andnorms.49.Self-identity—ACriticalApproach（socialcontext）:Thecriticalapproachtoself-identityuseshistory,economics,politics,andpublicdiscourse.Age:IsSeniorityValuedorDiscounted:a.Inculturesthatvalueage,theolderabusinesspersonisthemorecredibilityheorshehas.b.inyouth-orientedculturesbeingyoungseemstomeanhavingmorechoices,morepower,moreenergy,andmorefreedom.Gender:AreWomenEqualsorSubordinates:a.Intraditionalcultures,thetwofactsarerelated.Child-bearingandchild-nurturingarethemainrolesofwomen.b.managementrolea52Socialorganization:1GroupMembership:TemporaryorPermanent:a.IndividualsintheUnitedStatesaremembersofmanygro叩ssimultaneously;groupmembershipisimpermanentb.Inothercultures,theresponsibilitiesofmembershipebeforerights;groupmembershipispermanent,belongingstartswiththefamily.threefunctionsofgroupmunication:1.GiveandSaveFace2.DisplayEmotion（collectivistcountries,cultureteachespeoplefromanearlyagetoshowemotion.3.aboutShameorGuilt（a.Inindividualisticcultures,whereindividualresponsibility,results,andprivacyarevalued,guiltisapotentwayforaculturetoenforce（實施）rulesofbehavior.b.Incollectivistcultureswheregroupmembership,relationships,andpublicknowledgeofone’slifeareimportant,shameenforcestherulesofconduct.）form:ImportantorUntrustworthy（靠不任的）：Behavingaccordingtoformmeansbehavingcorrectly.PersonalMatters:PrivateorPublic:a.InEurope,asinBritain,Canada,theUnitedStates,Australia,andNewZealand,aperson’sworklifeiskeptfairlyseparatefromprivatelife.b.culturesthatemphasizerelationships,viewgroupmember-shipaslongterm,andvalueharmonyhaveablurred（模糊不清的）distinction（區(qū)別）betweenwhatisprivateandwhatispublic（oratleastwhatis“gro叩”）.SocialOrganizationalPatterns:HorizontalorHierarchical:1.monarchies（君主制）:atoneextremearerigid（嚴格的）verticallevelsinsociety,2.Democracies:movementbetweenthemisverylimited;attheotherextreme,societyishorizontalandoperateswithfewlevels.ApproachtoAuthority:DirectorMediated:1.inmanycultures,theapproachtoauthorityisindirect.2.InNewZealand,inwhichhorizontalityhaspriority,theapproachtoauthorityisdirect.municatingaboutproblems:1.inlow-contextcultures:direct2.inhigh-contextculture:indirect,putahighpriorityonkeepingharmony,preventinganyoneimportantfromlosingface,andnurturingrelationship.Sayingno:1.itisdonewithdelayandindirectnessinlow-contextcultures,therationale（基本原理）istoexplainwhyfirst.2.itismoredifficultforhigh-contextculture,whichisoftensayingyes.Giftgiving;1.inmanycultures,itisappropriatetotakesmallgiftswhenoneisinvitedtoenjoyhospitality（好客）.2.thewaypeoplefromdifferentculturesexpressappreciationforhospitalityvaries.3.thetimingofgreetingsisalsoimportantManagingconflicts:conflictisaclashbetweenpeopleorbetweenideasthatengages（吸引I）peopleinastruggleagainsteachother.1.Inindividualistculture（result-oriented）peopleareresponsiblefortheconsequenceoftheirownindividualactivities.2.incollectivistculture（relationship-oriented）:theyvalueonrelationship,problemsarenotanindividualresponsibility.解決方式1.peting2.collaborating（合作）3.promising4.avoiding5.acmodating（調(diào)節(jié)）62.Popularculturereferstothosesystemsorartifactsthatmostpeopleshareandthatmostpeopleknow63.it'sproducedbycultureindustries.it'sdiffersfromfolkculture.it'severywhere.it'sfillsasocialfunction.64Itdiffersfromfolkculture.Popularculture:mass-producedandmass-marketedcultureFolkculture:moreauthentic"folk"culturea65CollectivismThinkaboutthefamily'swelfare,reputation,andhonor.Marriageandbirth-giving,insteadofpersonalaffairs,aretakencarebyalltheothersinyourgroupwhichbasicallyisyourfamily.IndividualismTakesthemarriageasone'sownbusiness.Putyourselfinthefirstplacethinkingofyourownhappiness,interestsTheconceptoffa