大西洋理事會-荷蘭鹿特丹：綜合脫碳方法（英）-2023.3-

ATLANTICCOUNCIL1

AtlanticCouncil

GLOBALENERGYCENTER

MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIES?MARCH2023

ISSUEBRIEF

AnIntegratedApproach

Rotterdam,Netherlands:

toDecarbonization

BYJOSEPHWEBSTERANDPETERENGELKE

R

otterdam’smodestsizeofaboutsixhundredandfiftythousandresidentsbeliesitsoutsizedroleasacriticalhydrocarbongatewayfortheEuropeancontinent.Notonlydoestheportserveasanentrypointforfuelsthatpowermuchofnorthwest-ernEurope,butitalsoservesasavastindustrialcomplexfeaturingmultiplepowerplantsthatconvertincomingfueltoelectricityfortransmission,andrefineriesthatconvertcrudeoilintofuelandaseriesofpetroleumproductsthataretransportedelsewhereintheregion.

BecauseRotterdam’sportoperationsaffectmillionsofpeople,thecity’sdecarbonizationeffortsarewellpositionedtohaveanimpactnotonlywithinthecity,butalsofarbeyonditsborders.Assuch,actionstolowerthecity’scarbonfootprintarethesubjectofintenseinterestacrossEurope,andeventherestoftheworld.

Rotterdam’sdecarbonizationstrategyismultipronged,technologicallyoriented,andfocusedonitsport,whichcontributestothebulkofthecity’semissions.Rotterdam’smultifacetedstrategyincludesplanstodeploycarboncaptureandstoragetomitigatetheport’semissions,whilealsotransitioningtogreaterutilizationofcleanhydrogennec-essarytodecarbonizekeyindustrialsectors.

GivenRotterdam’scentralitytoEuropeandthesheerscaleofitsport,decarbonizingthecitywillrequireastrategiceffortinvolvingmultiplelevelsofgovernment,fromthePortofRotterdamallthewaytotheEuropeanUnion.

TheGlobalEnergyCenterpromotesenergysecuritybyworkingalongsidegovernment,industry,civilsociety,andpublicstakeholderstodevisepragmaticsolutionstothegeopo-litical,sustainability,andeconomicchallengesofthechangingglobalenergylandscape.

ATLANTICCOUNCIL2

PrinsesAlexiahaven

PrinsesAmaliahaven

PrinsesArianehaven

Yangtzekanaal

Europahaven

Amazonehaven

Mississippihaven

OostvoornseMeer

Beerkanaal

Hartelhaven

8ePetr.

haven

6ePetr.

haven

Dintelhaven

4ePetr.

haven

5ePetr.

haven

Beneluxhaven

NieuweWaterweg

7ePetr.haven

Calandkanaal

HetScheur

Brittanni?haven

Seinehaven

Hartelkanaal

Botlek

3ePetr.haven

Chemiehav.

St.Laurensh.

1ePetr.haven

Merwehav.

Eemhaven

Waalhaven

Maashaven

Rijnhav.

MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIESROTTERDAM,NETHERLANDS:ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTODECARBONIZATION

CapelleaandenIJssel

Noordzee

Rotterdam-TheHague

Airport

Maasmond

HoekvanHolland

Krimpenaan

denIJssel

Rotterdam

Prinses

WorldPort

Margriet-

Schiedam

haven

Center

Maassluis

NieuweMaas

Vlaardingen

Hartelkanaal

Meer

Brielse

Ridderkerk

Pernis

2ePetr.hav.

Rozenburg

Slufter

Brielle

Oostvoorne

Barendrecht

Hoogvliet

OudeMaas

Zwijndrecht

Spijkenisse

Dordrecht

Hellevoetsluis

Source:PortofRotterdam

ROTTERDAM’SCARBONFOOTPRINT

G

iventheport’ssignificancefornorthwesternEurope’shydrocarbonimports,calculatingRotter-dam’stotalcarbonfootprintisnotstraightforward.TheportofRotterdam,Europe’slargest,isanentrywayforimportsofcoal,crudeoil,andliquefiednaturalgas(LNG)fromaroundtheworld.Itextendsinlandforforty-twokilometersandfeatureshundredsoffacilities,includingportoperations,andindustrialapplicationssuchasrefin-ing.Sometwenty-ninethousandseagoingvesselsandnearlyonehundredthousandinland(river)vesselsenterandexittheportannually.1In2021,fourhundredandsix-ty-ninemillionmetrictonsofgoods—drybulk,containers,andliquids—movedthroughtheport,roughlyhalfofwhichwerehydrocarbons(coal,oil,andliquifiednaturalgas).

Duetothedifficultyaroundmeasuringtheindirectemis-sionsofRotterdam’sport,thisissuebriefwillexaminethecity’sScope1emissions—thatis,emissionsdirectlyattrib-utabletothecity.Directemissionsincludethosefromthemultiplepowerplantsandoilrefineriesintheport.

In2020,theportemitted22.4milliontonsofcarbondioxide(CO2),accountingfornearly16percentofallCO2emissionsintheNetherlands.2ThecityofRotterdamreportsthatthe

entiremunicipality,includingtheportandassociatedindus-tries,producesapproximately20percentoftheNether-lands’greenhousegasemissions,indicatingthattheportreleasesadisproportionateshareofthecity’scarbonemis-sions.3

Rotterdam’semissionstrajectory,therefore,islargelytiedtotheport.AsshowninFigure1,thecityhasmadeimpressivestridesinreducingportemissions,from30.6millionmetrictonsofCO2in2016to22.4millionmetrictonsin2020,a27-percentreductioninjustfouryears,faroutweighingthe5percentdeclineinthroughputatthePortfrom2016to2020.4AlthoughdisruptionsfromCOVID-19undoubtedlycontributedtothesharpdeclinein2020emissions,CO2emissionsreductionscanlargelybeattributedtoadeclineintheuseofcoal-firedpower.2016to2020witnesseda75percentdropincoal-relatedemissions,adecreaseofmorethan10.4millionmetrictons.5Still,workshoppartici-pantsindicatedthatRussia’sinvasionofUkrainethreatenstoreversesomeofthisprogress,asnaturalgasshortagesareleadingtoareboundincoalgeneration.

WhilenaturalgasCO2emissionslevelsattheportnearlytripledfrom2016to2020,thedecreaseincoal-relatedemissionsoutpacedtheexpandeduseofnaturalgas.GiventhatDutchgenerationfromnaturalgasroseby39

1“FactsandFigures,”PortofRotterdam,lastvisitedDecember12,2022,/en/experience-online/facts-and-figures.

2“CarbonEmissionsinPortofRotterdamCropSwifterthanNationalAverage,”PortofRotterdam,April8,2021,

/en/news-and-press-releases/carbon-emissions-port-rotterdam-drop-swifter-national-average?utm_campaign=&utm_

content=C%26EA_NEWS_port-in-action_NB_april_2021_EN&utm_medium=email&utm_source=Eloqua;“GreenhouseGasEmissions2.1PercentHigherin2021,”StatisticsNetherlands,March16,2022,https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2022/11/greenhouse-gas-emissions-2-1-percent-higher-in-2021.

3AhmedAboutaleb,“RotterdamPartnerswithMorethan100CompaniesandSocialOrganizationstoHalveCO2Emissionsby2030,”

C40Cities,January9,2020,

/news/rotterdam-partners-with-more-than-100-companies-and-social-organizations-to-halve-co2-emissions-by-2030/

.

4“Highlightsof2020AnnualReport,”PortofRotterdamAuthority,February2021,/FbContent.ashx/

pub_1000/downloads/v210309100611/Annual-report-highlights-Port-of-Rotterdam-2020.pdf;“Highlightsofthe2016AnnualReport,”PortofRotterdamAuthority,February2017,/sites/default/files/2021-06/highlights-annual-report-2016-port-of-rotterdam-authority.pdf.

5“CarbonEmissionsinPortofRotterdamCropSwifterthanNationalAverage.”

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MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIESROTTERDAM,NETHERLANDS:ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTODECARBONIZATION

2

Figure1:PortofRotterdamCOEmissions

Millionmerictons

35

0

30

25

20

15

10

5

20162017201820192020

Coal-firedpowerplantsNaturalGas-firedpowerplantsChemicalandotherindustriesOilrefineries

Source:Datafrom“CarbonEmissionsinPortofRotterdamCropSwifterthanNationalAverage,”PortofRotterdam.

percentfrom2016to2020,itislikelythatsomeofRot-terdam’spreviouscoal-firedemissionswerereplacedbynaturalgasgeneration—andrelatedemissions—producedoutsideofthecity’sboundaries.6Still,onbalance,naturalgashasloweredRotterdam’scarbonemissionsbydisplac-ingcoal.Thiswastobeexpected.Althoughnaturalgas’smethaneemissionsareaconcern,itgeneratesfewerCO2emissionsthancoal:oneUSstudyfoundthatnaturalgasyieldsninehundredandseventy-sixpoundsofCO2foreverymegawatt-hourofproducedelectricity,comparedwithcoalat2,257pounds.7

Coalemissionsalsofellduetohighergenerationofelec-tricityfrombiomass.Rotterdam’sMaasvlakteMPP3powerstation,whichopenedin2016,runsoncoal,biomass,and

residualflowsfromsurroundingindustry.8Itreplacedthenow-closedMPP1&2coal-onlygenerators.AccordingtoUniper,theplant’soperator,MPP3savesmorethanonemilliontonsofCO2eachyear.9

Itisimportanttonote,however,thatRotterdam’sstoryisnotexclusivelyreliantoneffortstoswitchfromcoaltogasorbiomass.AccelerateddeploymentofrenewableenergyhasmadeamajordentinDutchemissionsand,byexten-sion,Rotterdam’semissionprofile.10AsshowninFigure2,solarandwindpowerconstitutednearly20percentoftheNetherlands’electricitygenerationin2020,upfrom9percentin2016.Asapercentageofoverallconsumption,renewableenergy’sgrowingshareofelectricitygenerationisdisplacinghydrocarbons,particularlycoal.

6“ElectricityBalanceSheets;SupplyandConsumption,”StatisticsNetherlands,lastupdatedNovember30,2022,

https://opendata.cbs.nl/#/CBS/en/dataset/84575ENG/table?searchKeywords=electricity

.

7GlennMcGrath,“ElectricPowerSectorCO2EmissionsDropasGenerationMixShiftsfromCoaltoNaturalGas,”USEnergyInformationAgency,June9,2021,

/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=48296

.

8“MaasvlakteEnergyHub,”UniperEnergy,lastvisitedDecember12,2022,

https://www.uniper.energy/netherlands/power-plants-netherlands/maasvlakte-energy-hub

.

9“ElectricityBalanceSheets.”

10Ibid.

ATLANTICCOUNCIL4

MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIESROTTERDAM,NETHERLANDS:ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTODECARBONIZATION

Figure2:DutchElectricityGenerationbySource,2016–2020

percentage

100%

90%

80%

70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

20162017201820192020

CoalOtherNaturalGasNuclearEnergyWindEnergy,totalSolarPhotovoltaicBiomass

Source:“ElectricityBalanceSheets.”11

Despiteaccesstolacklustersunlightresources,theNeth-erlandsneverthelesshasexpandedsolargenerationbynearly450percentfrom2016to2020,assolar’sshareofallelectricitygenerationrosefrom1percentto7percent.

Whiletheremaybedecliningreturnstogreatersolargen-erationintheNetherlands,thenationenjoysexcellentonshoreandoffshorewindresources.Developmentofoff-shorewindpowergenerationisslatedtoplayamajorroleinRotterdam’sdecarbonizationfuture,astheNetherlandseekstodeploy70GWofnew

offshorewindcapacityby

2050

.Still,therearesignificantchallengesthatneedtobeovercometoscalewindenergyintheNetherlands.Despitethenation’swindendowments,Dutchonshorewindcapac-ityremainsremarkablyunderdevelopeddueinpartto

parochialconcerns

about“horizonpollution.”Thedecar-bonizationfutureoftheNetherlands—andRotterdam—willhingetoalargedegreeondeploymentofwindgeneration.

Rotterdamcontinuestobuildonitsdecarbonizingsuccessbyensuringmoreaccuratemonitoringofitsportoperation

emissions.InearlyFebruary2022,thePortofRotterdamAuthorityteamedupwithtechnologycompanyBigMiletoidentifytransport-relatedemissionsattheport,withplanstostartwithships,andlateraddingroadandrailtransport.12Rotterdam’simprovingemissionsmeasurementsystemswilllikelycontinuetoyieldrealdecarbonizationprogress.

ROTTERDAM’SDECARBONIZATIONSTRATEGY

S

tartingaround2016,stakeholdersinRotterdambegandevelopingtheproceduralbasesofadecar-bonizationstrategy.Underthecity’sdirection,thisstakeholder-drivenprocessultimatelyresultedinthe2019RotterdamClimateAgreement,adocumentthatnowconsti-tutesthecity’smasterdecarbonizationplan.13Thisgradual,multiyear,andconsensus-orientedprocessdrewfromkeyindustry,government,andcivilsocietystakeholdersinRot-terdamandbeyond.Morethanonehundredorganizationsandonethousandpeoplewereinvolvedintheprocess,whichwasorganizedbytheme(portandindustry,builtenvironment,mobility,cleanenergy,andconsumption).14

11Ibid.

12“PortofRotterdamAuthorityandBigMileMakeTransportEmissionsTransparentwithDigitalPlatform,”PortofRotterdam,February2,2022,

/en/news-and-press-releases/port-of-rotterdam-authority-and-bigmile-make-transport-emissions

.

13“RotterdamClimateAgreement,”Energieswitch,RotterdamClimateAlliance,2022,https://cdn.locomotive.works/sites/5ab410c8a2f42204838f797e/

content_entry5ab410faa2f42204838f7990/5be174d6337f770010c1b69f/files/1.2.2_Rotterdam_Climate_Agreement_ENG.pdf.

14“FactsheetRotterdamClimateAgreement,”CityofRotterdam,2019,

https://en.rotterdampartners.nl/app/uploads/2019/11/Factsheet-Climate-Agreement.pdf

.

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MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIESROTTERDAM,NETHERLANDS:ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTODECARBONIZATION

Theclimateagreementis,therefore,asimportantforitsdecarbonizationambitionsasitisfortheparticipationandbuy-inofmajoractorsacrossthecity,province,andnation.

Theoriginalclimateagreementsetsforthforty-nineclimate“deals”thatcollectivelyaimtoreducecitywideemissions(includingattheport)by49percentby2030,ascomparedto2017levels.Itfocusesonthreetypesofinterventionstoachievethisgoal:increasingenergyefficiencythroughgreaterutilizationofresidualheatfromindustryandotherapplications;changingtheenergysystemtoincludeaddi-tionalcleanenergyelectricitygeneration;andtransition-ingfromfossilfuelstozero-emissionenergysources.Thenationalandcitygovernmentswillfundtheprojects.Inaddition,thePortofRotterdamthroughitsownenergytransitionplanisprioritizingthethreetacticsaboveplusafourthpillar:makingtransportationmoresustainable.Finally,thecityofRotterdamalsolaunchedtheRotterdamSustainabilityCompass,whichlistsallofthecity’ssustain-abilityambitionsandoutlinesenergytransitioneconomicopportunities.

Giventheoverwhelmingimportanceoftheportanditslargeroleinemissions,muchofRotterdam’sdecarboniza-tionstrategyrestsonreducingmaritimeandrefineryemis-sionsviaproductionorimportationofcleanhydrogenorcleanammonia.TomeetEuropeanclimatetargets,thecitywillneedtobuildoutsignificanthydrogenproductionandimportcapacity.AnemphasisoninfrastructureisimportantgiventhatthePortofRotterdamassumesthatitwillhavetoimporteighteenmilliontonsofhydrogenby2050.15Inthisvision,Rotterdam’scontributionasacriticalentrepotforhydrocarbonswillshifttoanequallystrategicgatewayfortheimportationofcleanammonia.

Inadditiontoimportingcleanerfuels,Rotterdamisseekingtodecarbonizelocalindustrialemissionsviagreatercarbonsequestrationandstorage.ThePorthosproject,forexample,isdesignedtotransportCO?fromhard-to-abateindustriesattheportandstoretheemissionsinemptygasfieldsunderneaththeNorthSea.16PorthosisenormouslyimportanttoRotterdam’sobjectives,representingabouthalfoftheDutchgovernment’sfiscalsupportin2021forsustainabilityprojects.17

REMAININGCHALLENGES

R

otterdamhasalreadynotchedseveraldecarbon-izationwinsbyemployingcoal-to-gas,coal-to-bio-mass,andcoal-to-renewablesstrategies.Thenextstepswillbemoredifficultandinvolvemorecomplicatedtrade-offs.Implementingcarbon-captureprojectssuchasPorthos,forexample,isexpensiveandcontroversial.Like-wise,theNetherlandshasyettodemonstrateitsabilitytoquicklyanddramaticallyscaleoffshorewindcapacity,whichwillbecrucialforlocalhydrogenproduction.DuetothematurityofEuropeanoffshorewind(OSW)markets,thereislittleconcernoverfindingfundingforOSWproj-ects.Instead,expertsconsultedforthispaperexpressedmoreconcernaboutthelagbetweenprojectinitiationandregulatoryapproval.Thebenefitsareworththecosts,andtherewardsoutweightherisks,however,asprog-ressingreenhydrogenandcleanammoniawillbevitalforreducingemissionsinsomehard-to-abatesectorsandoperationsattheport,suchasrefining.Tocontinuedecar-bonizationefforts,Rotterdamshouldbuildonits“ClimateDeals,”whichnowstandatover58deals.Oneareaforexpansionisinsustainableaviationfuel,orSAF.RotterdamrefinerieshavebegunincreasingtheircapacityforSAFandotherrenewableproducts.BecauseSAFistheonlyviablenear-termaviationdecarbonizationdrop-infuel,thecityshouldincorporateSAFintoanupdated,expandedClimateDealframework.18

Despitelocalprogress,Rotterdam’scannotcontrolallfacetsofitsdecarbonizationfuture.Thecity’scentralityandreachwillbedeterminedinpartbyregionalandglobalgeo-political,economic,andtechnologicalmacrotrends.ThewarinUkraineprovidesapowerfulandtimelyillustration,challengingRotterdam’sclimategoals,aslocalstakehold-ersstressedtotheauthors.Russia’sinvasionofUkraine—andMoscow’squasi-embargoonnaturalgasexportstoEurope—haspressuredthecontinenttoincreasetheuseofcoaltogenerateelectricity.TheNetherlands’commitmenttophaseoutnaturalgasproductionfromitsGroningenfieldinNorthHolland,forexample,isleadingthegovern-menttoraisegenerationatcoal-firedpowerplants.19

15“ANewEnergySystem,”PortofRotterdam,lastvisitedDecember12,2022,

/en/port-future/energy-transition/a-new-energy-system

.

16“CO2ReductionthroughStorageundertheNorthSea,”Porthos,lastvisitedDecember12,2022,https://www.porthosco2.nl/en/.

17“NearlyHalfofDutch2020GreenSubsidiesGotoRotterdamCarbonCaptureProject,”Reuters,June8,2021,

/world/europe/nearly-half-dutch-2020-green-subsidies-go-rotterdam-carbon-capture-project-2021-06-08/

.

18“DealsinProgress,”RotterdamsKlimaatakkoord,accessedMarch6,2023,

https://www.rotterdamsklimaatakkoord.nl/klimaatdeals/deals-uitvoering?deal=mobiliteit#heading-mobiliteit

;“NesteinvestsinitsworldscalerenewableproductsrefineryinRotterdam,”NesteCorporation,pressrelease,June27,2022,https://www.neste.us/releases-and-news/renewable-solutions/neste-invests-its-world-scale-renewable-products-refinery-rotterdam.

19CaganKocandDiederikBaazil,“TheMassiveGasFieldThatEuropeCan’tUse,”Bloomberg,October6,2022,

/news/articles/2022-10-06/dutch-close-europe-s-biggest-gas-field-despite-energy-crisis?sref=lDgLmqjg

;BartH.MeijerandAnthonyDeutsch,“NetherlandsActivatesEnergyCrisisPlan,RemovesCaponCoalPlants,”Reuters,June20,2022,

/business/energy/netherlands-activates-energy-crisis-plan-removes-cap-coal-plants-2022-06-20

.

ATLANTICCOUNCIL6

MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIESROTTERDAM,NETHERLANDS:ANINTEGRATEDAPPROACHTODECARBONIZATION

ThePortofRotterdam,amajorcontributortotheNetherlands’greenhousegases,willplayasignificantroleinthecountry’sdecarbonizationstrategy.Credit:?KeesTorn

Thelong-termpoliticalimpactsofhigherenergyprices,especiallynaturalgas’s,willweighonRotterdam’sdecar-bonizationobjectives.WiththeNetherlandsandotherEuropeancountriesfacinguneasyshortandlong-termtradeoffsbetweenenergysecurity,sustainability,andaffordability,therearefewgoodsoptions.Coalisavailableandarelativelyaffordableenergysource,butitsemissionsdisqualifyitfromlong-termreliance.NaturalgasproductioncanbesourcedlocallyandrelativelycheaplyintheNeth-erlands,butearthquakesassociatedwithitsproductionaredisruptinglocalstakeholdersandleadingtoapoliticalbacklash.ImportsofRussiannaturalgasareanon-starterduetoMoscow’sinvasionofUkraine.Greaterdeploymentofsolarandwindrenewablesholdsextraordinarypromise,

butaregrowingfromasmallbase,whilenewprojectsareheldbackbyaslowregulatoryapprovalprocess.TheNeth-erlands,alongwithvirtuallyeveryotherWesterndemoc-racy,isfacingdifficultybalancingpolitical,economic,andclimateinterestsamidpersistent,elevatedenergyprices.

Thelocalstakeholdersconsultedforthispaperrepeat-edlyemphasizedhowthewar’simpactsonenergypricesmightleadtoapopulistbacklashagainsttheentiresuiteofdecarbonizationobjectives,inRotterdamandelsewhere.Althoughthatscenariohasyettoemerge,Rotterdam,theNetherlands,andtheEuropeanUnionwillneedtosmartlypositiontheirdecarbonizationgoals,instruments,andmes-sagingwithinanuncertainpoliticalenvironment.

ATLANTICCOUNCIL7

MODELSFORDECARBONIZINGCITIES

ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

PeterEngelkeisadeputydirectorandseniorfellowwithintheAtlanticCouncil’sScowcroftCenterforStrat-egyandSecurityaswellasanonresidentseniorfellowwiththeGlobalEnergyCenter.Hisdiverseworkportfo-lioattheCenter’sForesight,Strategy,andRisksInitiativespansglobalandregionalfutures,innovationandtechno-logicaldisruption,geopolitics,climatechangeandnaturalresources,andurbanizationamongothertopics.Engelkehasmanagednumerousprojectsonthesesubjects,result-inginalengthylistofAtlanticCouncilpublications.HisworkhasappearedintheWashingtonPost,LosAngelesTimes,theHill,theNationalInterest,Citiscope,MeetingoftheMinds,theWorldEconomicForum’sAgendaplatform,andotheroutlets.

Engelke’sprofessionalexperienceincludesstintsatotherthinktanksandfoundationsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates,includingasanexecutive-in-residenceattheGenevaCentreforSecurityPolicy,aBoschFellowwiththeRobertBoschFoundationinStuttgart,Germany,andavisit-ingfellowattheStimsonCenterinWashington,DC.

Hismostrecentco-authoredbook,TheGreatAccelera-tion,isaglobalenvironmentalhistoryfrom1945to2016.Hisfirst,HealthandCommunityDesign,waspennedwhilehewasontheresearchfacultyatGeorgiaTechandisastudyofpublichealthandurbanform.Dr.EngelkeholdsaPh.D.inhistoryfromGeorgetownUniversityandhasmas-ter’sdegreesfromGeorgetown’sWalshSchoolofForeignService,theUniversityofMaryland,andIndianaUniver-sity.HecurrentlyisontheadjunctfacultyatGeorgetown’sSchoolofContinuingStudies.

JosephWebsterisaseniorfellowattheAtlanticCoun-cil’sGlobalEnergyCenter,whereheservesashydrogenandoffshorewindlead.WebsterpreviouslyworkedasafundamentalsenergyconsultantataboutiqueenergyfirminHouston,Texas,wherehisprojectworkincludedtopicsacrosshydrogen,ammonia,electricity,liquefiednaturalgas,andoilandgasmarkets.

Paralleltohisenergywork,WebstereditstheChina-Rus-siaReport,anindependent,nonpartisannewsletter.HeisproficientinMandarinChineseandhasbeenpublishedorcitedbyTheChinaProject,PoliticoEurope,Eurasianet,theBulwark,andmore.

Webstercompletedamaster’sdegreeininternationalrela-tionsfromtheJohnsHopkinsUniv