工業(yè)革命給我們帶來了什么課件

TheNatureof

Science2010VirginiaScienceSOLEquippedwithhisfivesenses,manexplorestheuniversearoundhimandcallstheadventureScience.

Http://襯塑復(fù)合管涂塑復(fù)合管鋼塑復(fù)合管消防涂覆鋼管UNDERSTANDABLETHENATURALWORLDIS

TheNaturalWorldisUnderstandableThenaturalworldisunderstandablethroughthecarefulcollectionandcriticalanalysisofempiricalevidence.Everydisciplineinmodernsciencehasderiveditsprinciplesandparadigmsthroughthisprocess.Example/IllustrationEachyearbillionsofdollarsarespentbybusiness,political,andotherintereststofindoutwhatpeoplebelievetobetrueaboutagiventopic.Ratherthanaskingwhatpeoplebelievetobetrue,itmightbemoreinformativetoaskhowtheyarrivedatthisdecisionandwhatcriteriawereinvolved.

Infact,peopleuseavarietyof“truthfilters”(Toffler,2006,p.123)toguidetheminmakingdecisionsintheirpersonalandprofessionallives.Forexample,whendecidingwhichmovietoseeorbooktopurchase,apersonmightusea“consensus”filter.

“Authority”isanotheroftenused“truthfilter”andrelatestotheimportancebestowedupontheopinionsandbeliefsofinfluentialpeople.Whetherearnedornot-wetendtoplacemoreweightontheviewpointsofpeopleandinstitutionswhichrepresentauthority.Nationalnewscasters,successfulentrepreneurs,politicalleaders,respectedprintandnewsmedia,andmoviestarsarejustafewoftheauthoritiespeoplecurrentlylooktofortruth.EVIDENCESCIENCEDEMANDS

ScienceDemandsEvidenceScientificknowledgeinvolvesacombinationofobservationsandinferences.Scientistsusedatatomakeinferencesandformulateexplanationsofphenomena.Datacanbeobtainedthroughexperimentationorobservation.Example/Illustration:SpontaneousGenerationWemaylaughatthenotionnowbut,beforemicroscopeswereinventedpeoplegenerallybelievedthatlifesprangfrominanimatematter-thatlifecouldspontaneouslybegeneratedfrominanimatematter.

ThisviewhadfirstbeenintroducedbyAristotlewhosaidthatsomeanimalscouldgrowspontaneouslyandthatsuchanimalsneednotcomefromothersoftheirownkind.Earlierphilosophersbelievedthattheearliestmenmusthavesprungup,fullyformed,fromthesoilinadultformbecausetheynevercouldhavesurvivedotherwise.

Beforewelaughtoohardattheseideasweshouldnotethatmanyscientists–evenuptothe1800’s–heldthesesameviews.Infact,recipebooksformakinganimalswerewrittenandonesuchrecipeformakingascorpioncalledforbasiltobelayeredbetweentwobricksandthenplacedinthesunlight.

Realscience,however,reliesonempiricalevidenceandreplicableresults.Thankfully,themythofspontaneousgenerationwasfinallyputtorestin1859byLouisPasteur.LOGICANDIMAGINATIONSCIENCEISABLENDOF

ScienceisaBlendofLogicandImaginationScientificknowledgeinvolveshumanimagination,creativity,andinference.Muchofthescientificenterpriseisgovernedbytheabilityandcreativityofscientiststovisualizedifferentsituationsandpredictoutcomes.Example/Illustration:TheStructureofBenzeneSinceitsdiscoveryin1825,themoleculebenzenewasknowntocontaincarbonatomsandhydrogenatoms.However,theirexactarrangementwasamysteryfordecadesandeludedthescrutinyofmanyscientists.

About40yearsafteritsdiscovery,ayoungchemistbythenameofAugustKekuledevisedthehexagonalstructureofthenowfamiliarmolecule.AccordingtoKekule,theideacametohiminadreamduringanafternoonnap.Inhisdream,theatomsweremovingaboutinfrontofhimin"longrows,sometimesmorecloselyfittedtogether,alltwiningandtwistinginsnake-likemotion.”

Hewasamazedtoseethat“oneofthesnakeshadseizedholdofitsowntail,andtheformwhirledmockinglybeforemyeyes."Thusthering-likestructureofbenzenewasdiscoveredduringachemist’safternoonnap.DURABLESCIENTIFICKNOWLEDGEIS

ScientificKnowledgeisDurable

Scientificideasarecontinuallytested.Ideasthatareabletowithstandthescrutinyofthescientificcommunityformthefoundationsofourcurrentunderstandingsofthenaturalworldandhowitfunctions.SUBJECTTOCHANGESCIENTIFICKNOWLEDGEISScientificIdeasareSubjecttoChangeThedrivetoelucidatethefinerpointsofacommonlyheldscientificparadigmiswhat“normalscience”isallabout.

Thesensitiveinstrumentsdevelopedtoelucidatethefinerpointsofaparadigmhelptouncoverambiguitiesintheexpecteddata.Thesemayleadtochangesinourunderstanding.Althoughsubjecttogradualrefinement,“themainbodyofscientificknowledgeisverystableandgrowsbybeingcorrectedslowlyandhavingitsboundariesextendedgradually.”Example/Illustration:PlateTectonics(cont’d)However,in1929,ArthurHolmesproposedthatcontinentaldriftwascausedbythermalconvectioncurrentsintheEarth’smantle.HeexplainedthattheseconvectioncurrentsactedasgiantconveyorbeltmovingcontinentsfromoneplaceontheEarthtoanother.

Holmes’ideawaslargelyignoreduntilthe1960’swhenmarinegeologistsreportedtheexistenceofdeepseatrenchesandmid-oceanridgesontheoceanfloor–allperfectlyexplainedbyWegenerandHolmes’ideas.

Today,thetheoryofplatetectonicsisderivedfromWegener's"continentaldrift"andisuniversallyacceptedtoexplainthemotionoftheEarth’scrust.Strangelyenough,somedatadosupporttheeffectsofgravitationalpulloftheSunandmoonaswellasEarth’srotationassecondaryforcesatworkincontinentalmovement.Thus,theexampleprovidedbytheworkofAlfredWegenerdemonstratesthatscientificknowledgeisdurableyetsubjecttorefinementasnewinstrumentationanddatabecomeavailable.

BIASSCIENTISTSATTEMPTTOAVOIDScientistsTrytoIdentifyandAvoidBiasSincescientistswithinthesamefieldtendtosharecommonmethodologiesandviews,theirobjectivitymustcontinuallybechallengedtoensurevalidityofresults.Withinthescientificcommunitythereareethicalpracticeswhichguaranteethatscientificendeavorsarecarriedoutunderuniversallyacceptedstandardsaroundtheworld.Example/Illustration:TheCostofFalsifyingDataOnerecentcaseofscientificmisconductoccurredin2009whentheUCLAOfficeofResearchIntegrityreportedthatoneofitscancerresearchersfalsifieddataintwoscientificjournalarticlesandhadliedaboutexperimentalproceduresandfindingsinNIHandotherfederalgrantapplications.

Alertedtothemisconductbyaformerassistantintheresearcher’slab,theOfficeofResearchIntegrityinitiatedaprobewhichultimatelyfoundtheresearcherguiltyofmisconduct.

Asaresulttheresearcherwasultimatelyaskedtoleavethefacultypostandhassinceresumedworkasanoncologistworkingwithpatients

Thedetailsofcasesofscientificmisconductarelessimportantthantheswiftandsurecondemnationandostracismoftheperpetrator(s)bythescientificcommunity.SOCIALACTIVITYSCIENCEISACOMPLEXScienceisaComplexSocialActivityScientificknowledgeistiedtosocialandculturalfactors.Scientificresearchisdependentuponfinancialsupport,andthiscaninfluence-bothpositivelyandnegatively-whichareasareinvestigated.TheNatureofScienceThenaturalworldisunderstandableSciencedemandsevidenceScienceisablendoflogicandimaginationScientificknowledgeisdurableScientificknowledgeissubjecttochangeScientistsattempttoidentifyandavoidbiasScienceisacomplexsocialactivityReferencesAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience.(1993).Benchmarksforscienceliteracy.NewYork,NY:OxfordUniversityPress.Chiapetta,E.L.,Koballa,T.R.,(2004).Quizzingstudentsonthemythsofscience.TheScienceTeacher.Nov,pp.58-61.Colburn,A.(2008).Thepreparedpractitioner:Whytheoriesneverbecomelaws.TheScienceTeacher.April/May,p.10.Hanuscin,D.L.,Akerson,V.L.,