跨文化管理復(fù)習(xí)

Internationalmanagementistheprocessofdevelopingstrategies,designingandoperatingsystems,andworkingwithpeoplearoundtheworldtoensuresustainedcompetitiveadvantages.RegionalTradingBlocsThedominanceoftheUnitedStatesisalreadyover.WhatisemergingisaworldeconomyofblocsrepresentedbytheNorthAmericanFreeTradeAgreement(NAFTA),theEU,andtheAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN).Muchoftoday'sworldtradetakesplacewithinthreeregionalfree-tradeblocs(WesternEurope,AsiaandtheAmericans)Muchoftoday'sworldtradearegroupedaroundthreedominantcurrencies:euro,yen,andthedollar.SocialResponsibilityincludestheexpectationthatcorporationsconcernthemselveswiththesocialandeconomiceffectsoftheirdecisions.Thetwoextremeopinionsrelatedtosocialresponsibility —DomesticfirmsOneextreme-theonlyresponsibilityofabusinessistomakeaprofit.Anotherextreme-companiesshouldanticipateandtrytosolveproblemsinsociety.GeneralguidelinesforcodeofmoralityandethicsinindividualcountriesMoralUniversalism:addresstheneedforamoralstandardthatisacceptedbyallcultures.Ethnocentricapproach:Applythemoralityusedinitshomecountry.Ethicalrelativism:adoptthelocalmoralcodeofwhatevercountryinwhichitisoperating.Cultureofasocietycomprisesthesharedvalues,understandings,assumptions,andgoalsthatarelearnedfromearliergenerations,imposedbypresentmembersofasociety,andpassedontosucceedinggeneration.ProjectGLOBECulturalDimensions-

Assertiveness:Tough/confrontational/competitivevsmodest/tender;Low:Sweden.NewZealand,Switzerland;High:Greece,Austria,Germany.PerformaneeOrientation:Performaneeimprovementandexcellent;Low:Russia,Argentina,Greece;High:NewZealand,HongKong,Singapore.FutureOrientation:Future-oriented:planningandinvestinginthefuture;Low:Russia,Argentina,Poland;High:Netherlands,Switzerland,Singapore.HumanOrientation:Fair,altruistic,generous,caring,kind;Low:Germany,Spain,France;High:Malaysia,Ireland,Philippines.4、HOFSTEDESVALUEDIMENSIONS（霍夫斯泰德價(jià)值維度）:Thefirstofthesevaluedimensions,powerdistanee,isthelevelofacceptaneebyasocietyoftheunequaldistributionofpowerininstitutions.權(quán)力距離指一個(gè)社會(huì)對(duì)機(jī)構(gòu)中權(quán)利不平等分配的接受水平。Thesecondvaluedimension,uncertainlyavoidanee,referstotheextenttowhichpeopleinasocietyfeelthreatenedbyambiguoussituations.不確定性規(guī)避指的是一個(gè)社會(huì)中人們對(duì)攻擊情境在多大的程度上感受到了威脅。Thethird,individualism,referstothetendencyofpeopletolookafterthemselvesandtheirimmediatefamiliesonlyandtoneglecttheneedsofsociety.個(gè)人主義，指的是人們只考慮自己和其所在的小群體而忽視社會(huì)需求的程度。Thefourthvaluedimension,masculinity,referstothedegreeoftraditionally “masculinevalues---assertiveness,materialism,andalackofconcernforothers---thatprevailinasociety.陽(yáng)剛之氣，指的是傳統(tǒng)的 男子氣概”價(jià)值---過(guò)于自信、物質(zhì)主義、缺乏對(duì)別人的考慮。Inconclusion,thesefourvaluedimensionsdonotoperateinisolation;rather,theyareinterdependentandinteractiveandthuscomplexintheireffectsonworkattitudesandbehaviors.這四個(gè)價(jià)值維度并不是獨(dú)立的， 相反它們互相依賴(lài)互相影響， 因此在對(duì)工作態(tài)度和行為的影響上更加復(fù)雜。5*、THECOMMUNICATIONPROCESS （溝通過(guò)程）：Anythingthatservestounderminethecommunicationoftheintendedmeaningistypicallyreferredtoasnoise.妨礙溝通本意要傳達(dá)的所有東西都成為噪音Theprimarycauseofnoisestemsfromthefactthatthesenderandthereceiverexistinaunique,privatewordthoughtofashisownlifespacewhichisbasedonculture,experienee,relations,andvaluesandsoon.Theprivateworlddeterminestheinterpretationofmeaningincommunication. Peopleoftenfilterofselectivelyunderstandmessagesconsistentwiththeirownexpectationsandperceptionsofrealityandtheirvaluesandnormsofbehavior.Themoredissimilartheculturesofthoseinvolved,themorethelikelihoodofmisinterpretation.噪音主要來(lái)自于信息發(fā)布者和接受者的個(gè)人生活空間， 這個(gè)生活空間獨(dú)特而私密。主要取決、于文化、經(jīng)驗(yàn)、關(guān)系、價(jià)值等等。個(gè)人生活空間決定了溝通過(guò)程中含義的釋放。人們常常會(huì)過(guò)濾或者有選擇性地理解與其個(gè)人期望、 現(xiàn)實(shí)與價(jià)值感知、行為準(zhǔn)則相符合的那些信息。這其中實(shí)際的文化越是不同，信息被誤解的可能性就越大。Therefore,communicationisacomplexprocessoflinkinguporsharingtheperceptualfieldsofsenderandreceiver;theperceptivesenderbuildsabridgetothelifespaceofthereceiver.Afterthereceiverinterpretsthemessageanddrawsaconclusionaboutwhatthesendermeant,heorshewill,inmostcases,encodeandsendbackaresponse,makingcommunicationacircularprocess.因此，溝通是將信息發(fā)送者和接受者的知覺(jué)進(jìn)行聯(lián)系與共享的一個(gè)極其復(fù)雜的過(guò)程。 發(fā)送者有意識(shí)地建立了一座通往接受著生活空間的橋梁。 在接受者對(duì)信息進(jìn)行解釋后并得出發(fā)送者意圖的結(jié)論之后，通常要進(jìn)行編碼并且反饋，使得溝通成為一個(gè)循環(huán)過(guò)程。6*、CULTURALVARIABLESINTHECOMMUNICATIONPROCESS（ 溝通過(guò)程中的文化變量）Attitudes:Attitudesunderliethewaywebehaveandcommunicateandthewayweinterpretmessagesfromothers.E.g.oneproblem,stereotyping,occurswhenapersonassumesthateverynumberofasocietyorsubculturehasthesamecharacteristicsortraits.Stereotypingisacommoncauseofmisunderstandingininterculturalcommunication.態(tài)度：態(tài)度是我們行為處事和溝通的基礎(chǔ)， 同樣也是我們從別人那獲得信息的基礎(chǔ)。 例如刻板印象，即一方假設(shè)另國(guó)家或者亞文化下的所有人都有相同的特點(diǎn)和特性， 刻板印象在跨文化溝通中是引起誤解的一個(gè)重要的原因。Socialorganization:ourperceptionscanbeinflueneedbydifferenceinvalues,approach,orprioritiesrelativetothekindofsocialorganizationstowhichwebelong.社會(huì)組織：我們的感知受所屬社會(huì)組織的總體價(jià)值觀(guān)、態(tài)度以及特權(quán)的影響。Thoughtpatterns:Thelogicalprogressionofreasoningvarieswidelyaroundtheworldandgreatlyaffectsthecommunicationprocess.思考模式：世界各地在推理的邏輯演進(jìn)上有很大的差異，這些差異影響了溝通過(guò)程。Roles:Societiesdifferconsiderablyintheirperceptionsofamanager Muchof'srole.thedifferenceisattributabletotheirperceptionsofwhoshouldmakethedecisionsandwhohastheresponsibilityforwhat.管理者角色的認(rèn)識(shí)在各國(guó)大不相同，大部分差異可以歸結(jié)為誰(shuí)做決策以及誰(shuí)為此承擔(dān)責(zé)任。Language:SpokenorwrittenIanguageisafrequentcauseofmiscommunication,stemmingfromaperson 'sinabilitytospeaklocallanguage,apoorortoo-literaltranslation,aspeaker 'sfailuretoexplainidioms,orapersonmissingthemeaningconveyedthroughbodyIanguageorcertainsymbols.語(yǔ)言：口語(yǔ)或者書(shū)面語(yǔ)音最易引起誤解，比如一個(gè)人不會(huì)說(shuō)當(dāng)?shù)卦?huà)，翻譯能力較弱，不能解釋自己說(shuō)出的俚語(yǔ)，或者不能領(lǐng)會(huì)對(duì)方的肢體語(yǔ)言或者類(lèi)似的信號(hào)NonverbalCommunication: “Apictureisworthathousandwords. ”Subtlemessagesaccountforbetween65to93percentofinterpretedcommunication. MinorvariationsinbodyIanguage,speechrhythms,andpunctualityoftencausemistrustandmisperceptionofthesituationamongcross-culturalparties.Themediafornonverbalcommunication:Kinesicbehavior:communicationthroughbodymovements.Proxemics:theinfluencesofproximityandspaceoncommunication —bothpersonalspaceandofficespaceorlayout.High-contactcultures:prefertostandcloseandtoexperiencea “close”sensoryinvolvementLow-contactcultures:havea “distant”styleofbodyIanguageParalanguage-howsomethingissaidratherthanthecontent.ObjectIanguage/materialculture -thewaywecommunicatethroughmaterialartifactsMonochromiccultures(Switzerland,Germany,UnitedStates):timeisexperieneedinalinearwayPolychroniccultures(LatinAmerica,Arabs): toleratemanythingshappeningsimultaneouslyandmayfocusonseveralthingsatonce7、CONTEXT(語(yǔ)境)Amajordifferentiatingfactorthatisprimarycauseofnoiseinthecommunicationprocessisthatofcontext—whichcontainsmanyvariablesincommunicationprocess.Thecontextinwhichthecommunicationtakesplaceaffectsthemeaningandinterpretationoftheinteraction. Culturescanbedividedintohigh-orlow-contextcultures.在溝通過(guò)程中，會(huì)引起噪音的另一個(gè)主要原因是語(yǔ)境，它包含了溝通過(guò)程中的許多變量。溝通發(fā)生時(shí)的語(yǔ)境會(huì)影響到交流含義及其解釋。 文化可以劃分為高語(yǔ)境文化和低語(yǔ)境文化。High-contextculture:(themiddleeast,Asia,Africa,andtheMediterranean),thefeelingsandthoughtsarenotdirectlyexpressed;instead,onehastoreadbetweenthelinesandinterpretmeaningfromone 'undersfeaading.高語(yǔ)境文化：在亞洲、中東、非洲以及地中海地區(qū)，人們不會(huì)直接表達(dá)出其感覺(jué)和思想，相反，你只能在字里行間解讀含義。Low-contextculture:(Germany,Switzerland,andnorthAmerica),wherepersonalandbusinessrelationshipsaremorecompartmentalized,communicationmediahavetobemoreexplicit.Feelingsandthoughtsareexpressedinwords,andinformationisreallyavailable.低語(yǔ)境文化：在德國(guó)，瑞士還有北美，個(gè)人之見(jiàn)、企業(yè)之間的關(guān)系都是分隔的，溝通手段不得不簡(jiǎn)單明了，感情和思想都是通過(guò)語(yǔ)言來(lái)表達(dá)的，因?yàn)槿菀椎玫叫畔?。Incross-culturalcommunicationbetweenhigh-andlow-contextpeople,alackofunderstandingmayprecludereachingasolution,andconflictmayarise.與處于高語(yǔ)境和低語(yǔ)境文化之間的人進(jìn)行跨文化溝通時(shí)， 缺乏相應(yīng)了解會(huì)使得雙方難以達(dá)成協(xié)議。矛盾而由此產(chǎn)生。Negotiationistheprocessofdiscussionbywhichtwoormorepartiesaimformutuallyacceptableagreement.Itiscriticalthatnegotiatorsavoidprojectivecognitivesimilarity -assumptionsthatothersperceive,judge,think,andreasoninthesamewaydespiteculturaldifferences.Thenegotiationprocess

EXH1BIT5-2TheNegotiationProcessCross-CulturalNegotiationVariablesTheinflueneeofCultureondecisionmakingDecisionMakingStages:DefiningtheproblemGatheringandanalyzingrelevantdataConsideringalternativesolutionsDecidingonthebestsolutionImplementingthedecision8*、THEINFLUENCEOFCULTUREONDECISIONMAKING（ 文化對(duì)決策制定的影響）Oneofthemajorculturalvariablesaffectingdecisionmakingiswhetheracountryassumesanobjectiveapproachorasubjectiveapproach.影響決策制定的一個(gè)主要文化變量十一國(guó)具有主觀(guān)還是客觀(guān)的傾向。Anotherculturalvariablethatgreatlyinfluencesthedecision-makingprocessistherisktoleraneeofthosemakingthedecision.另一個(gè)嚴(yán)重影響決策制定過(guò)程的文化變量是決策制定者的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)承受程度。Anotherimportantvariableinthedecision- makingprocessisthemanager 'sperceptionofthelocusofcontroloveroutcomes-whetherthatlocusisinternalorexternal.還有一個(gè)影響決策制定過(guò)程的重要變化變量是管理者對(duì)結(jié)果控制點(diǎn)的理解 一這種控制點(diǎn)是內(nèi)部的還是外部的。Anothervariablethataffectstheconsiderationofalternativesolutionsishowmanagersfeelaboutstayingwithfamiliarsolutionsortryingnewones.影響備選方案的另一個(gè)變量是管理者如何評(píng)價(jià)已有方案或者新方案。GlobalandInternationalStrategicAlternativesAlternativestrategies:Global,Regionalization/Location.GlobalIntegrativeGlobalStrategyTreatingtheworldasanundifferentiatedworldwidemarketplaceTheimpetus:-Regionaltradingblocks-Decliningtariffs-InformationtechnologyexplosionRegionalization/LocationLocalmarketsarelinkedtogetherwithinaregion,allowinglocalresponsiveness.Theimpetus:-Uniqueconsumerpreferences-Domesticsubsidies-NewproductiontechnologiesGlobalIntegrativeStrategiesFullverticalandhorizontalintegrationExample:Dell-FactoriesinIreland,Brazil,China,andsoon-Assemblyanddeliverysystemfrom47locationsaroundtheworld-Littleinventory,abilitytochangeoperationsquicklyStrategicAlliances(CooperativeStrategies)StrategicAlliances:Partnershipsbetweentwoormorefirmsthatcombinefinancial,managerial,andtechnologicalresourcesandtheirdistinctivecompetitiveadvantagestopursemutualgoals.GuidelinesforSuccessfulAlliances-Chooseapartnerwithcompatiblestrategicgoalsandobjectives-Seekcomplementaryskills,products,andmarkets-Workouthoweachpartnerwilldealwithproprietaryknowledgeorcompetitivelysensitiveinformation-RecognizethatmostalliancesonlylastafewyearsStaffingforGlobalOperationEthnocentricapproach:Usedatinternationalizationstageofstrategicexpansion,withcentralizedstructure;parent-countrynationals(PCNs)PolycentrieApproach:Oftenusedwithmultinationalstrategy;Host-countrynationals(HCNs)GlobalStaffingApproach:Thirdcountrynationals(TCNs);transpatriatesRegioncentricapproach:CanproduceamixofPCNs,HCNs,andTCHsCross-CulturalTrainingCultureShock:Astateofdisorientationandanxietyaboutnotknowinghowtobehaveinanunfamiliarculture;thegoaloftrainingistoeasetheadjustmenttothenewenvironmentSubcultureshock:Whenamanageristransferredtoanotherpartofthecountry,wherethereareculturaldifferences;the “shock”comesfromfeelinglikean “immigrantone'sowncountry.FourstagesofCulturalshock? Honeymoon:positiveattitudesandexpectations,excitement,andatouristfeelingprevail? Irritationandhostility:crisisstagewhenculturaldifferencesresultinproblemsatwork,athome,indailyliving —homesickanddisoriented.?Gradualadjustment:recoveryprocessthatthe “patient”graduallybecomesabletounderstandandpredictpatternsofbehavior,usetheIanguage,dealwithdailyactivities,theystarttoaccepttheirnewlife.? Biculturalism:managerandfamilymembersgrowtoacceptandappreciatelocalpeopleandpracticesandareabletofunctioneffectivelyintwocultures.Cross-CulturalResearchonMotivationHighUncertaintyAvoidanee-Suggestsneedforjobsecutiry,lowuncertaintysuggestsmotivationbyriskyopportunitiesHighPowerDistanee-Suggestsmotivatorsinboss-subordinaterelationship,lowpowerdistaneesuggestsmotivationbyteamworkandpeersIndividualism -Suggestsmotivationfromopportunitiesforindividualadvancement,andautonomy,collectivismsuggestsappealstogroupgoalsandsupportMasculinity-Suggestspeoplearemorecomfortablewithtraditionaldivisionofwork,femininitysuggestslooserboundaries,flexiblerolesThemeaningofword(MOW)Factorsmostvaluedaboutwork:AneededincomeInterestandsatisfactionContactswithothersAwaytoservesocietyAmeansofkeepingoccupiedStatusandprestigeThetablecanhelpinternationalmanagers—Anticipatepeople'sattitudetowardswor-Identifywhataspectsofworkaremeaningful—IdentifytheapproachtheyshouldtaketomotivateworkersCountryNWorkingprovideryouwithanincomechnitk険tiedWorkingkb恥祀allyestingaikJwniwfyingto料qWortfig[wrmrt;youtol^veinterestingwitl】otherpwpleWorkingk》usefulloryoucoservesocietyWorkingkeepi阿occupiedWorkinggivetyoustatusir?t|presd^eJapan31804S41341479]L5皿Grmany1264l€7Bl74119IQI⑷35.521317310.28.749Britan471344179IS310511.0109Ybgcd耿口522Ml19?9815111.79.396913.1l€8IS311511.311.9hnelW)111血IIIIU94站Ncdierlluuk弼曲17916710.649Allcountries19514311$IQ8combined￡7921、CULTURALSAVVYANDCULTURALSENSITIVITY （文化悟性和文化敏感性）Acriticalskillformanagingpeopleandprocessesinothercountriesisculturalsavvy—thatis,aworkingknowledgeoftheculturalvariablesaffectingmanagementdecisions.Managershaveoftenseriouslyunderestimatedthesignificaneeofculturalfactors.在其他國(guó)家，管理人和過(guò)程的關(guān)鍵技能是文化悟性，也就是說(shuō)，具有文化變量方面的知識(shí)可以影響管理決策，而管理者經(jīng)常嚴(yán)重低估文化因素的意義Culturalsensitivityorculturalempathyisanawarenessandanhonestcaringaboutanotherindividual 'scultiSechsensitivityrequirestheabilitytounderstandtheperspectiveofthoselivinginother（andverydifferent）societiesandthewillingnesstoputoneselfinanother'sshoes.文化敏感性或者文化認(rèn)同是指對(duì)另一種文化的認(rèn)識(shí)和關(guān)心， 文化敏感性要求具有理解居住在其他社會(huì)，甚至是居住在與自己所處環(huán)境完全不同的地方的人的洞察力和設(shè)身處地地為他人著想的意愿。2*、CULTUREANDITSEFFECTSONORGANIZATIONS （文化及其對(duì)組織的影響）Thecultureofasocietycomprisesthesharedvalues,understandings,assumptions,andgoalsthatarelearnedformearlygenerations,imposedbypesentmembersofasocietyandpassedontosucceedinggenerations.社會(huì)文化包括從前代人那里習(xí)得的， 受現(xiàn)代社會(huì)成員影響并將傳遞給后代的共同的價(jià)值、理念、假設(shè)和目標(biāo)。Whichorganizationalprocesses—technicalandotherwise—aremostaffectedbyculturedifferences,andhow,isthesubjectofongoingcross-culturalmanagementresearchanddebate.Theeffectsofculturearemoreevidentattheindividuallevelofpersonalbehaviorthanattheorganizationallevel,asaresultofconvergenee.組織過(guò)程---技術(shù)方式或者其他---是如何受影響的，這是目前跨文化管理研究和爭(zhēng)論的主題，由于同一性，文化對(duì)個(gè)體行為的影響要比對(duì)組織層次的影響更明顯。Manypeopleintheworldunderstandandrelatetoothersonlyintermsoftheirownculture.Thisunconsciousrefereneepointofone 'sownculturalvaluesiscalledaself-refereneecriterion.世界上許多人只從其自己文化的角度來(lái)理解別人， 與別人相處，這種無(wú)意識(shí)地對(duì)自己文化的關(guān)注稱(chēng)為自我參考準(zhǔn)則Asafirststeptowardculturalsensitivity,internationalmanagersshouldunderstandtheirowncultures.Thisawarenesshelpstoguardagainstadoptingeitheraparochialoranethnocentricattitude.作為培養(yǎng)文化敏感性的第一步， 國(guó)際管理者應(yīng)該首先理解他們自己的文化， 這種認(rèn)識(shí)有助于防止地方主義或民族優(yōu)越感。3、CONVERGENCE（同一性）：Convergeneedescribesthephenomenonoftheshiftingofindividualmana