信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap課件

信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap1STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMESDescribeMISandthe3importantorganizationalresourceswithinit–people,information,andIT.DescribehowtousePorter’sFiveForcesModeltoevaluatetherelativeattractivenessofanindustry.CompareandcontrastPorter’s3genericstrategies,toplineversusbottomline,andtherun-grow-transformframeworkfordevelopingbusinessstrategy.Describetheroleofvalue-chainanalysisforidentifyingvalue-addedand-reducingprocesses.1-2STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMESDescrISYOURSOCIALSECURITYNUMBERWORTH$98?Informationtechnologyhasgreatlyacceleratedboththe“good”andthe“bad”ITcanbeusedtoincreaseprofit,reducecosts,increaseservicequality,andbenefitsocietyITcanalsobeusedtostealyourpersonalinformation,commitfraudulentacts,etcManysitesontheWebare–rightnow–sellingyourpersonalinformation1-3ISYOURSOCIALSECURITYNUMBERWhatYourPersonalInformationIsWorth?$490–creditcardnumberandPIN$147–driver’slicensenumber$147–birthcertificate$6–PayPallogonandpassword$78-$294–billingdataincludingaccountnumber,address,birthdate,etc1-4WhatYourPersonalInformationQuestionsHaveyou,afriend,orafamilymemberbeenavictimofidentitytheft?Ifso,tellthestorytoyourclass.Howoftendoyoubuyyourcreditreport?Didyouknowyougetoneforfreeannually?Istechnologygoodorbad?1-5QuestionsHaveyou,afriend,oINTRODUCTIONYouliveinadigitalageAverageAmericanreliesonmorethan250computersperdayAccordingtoTimemagazine,14%ofcellphoneusersstoppedhavingsextotakeaphonecall45ofthe2008Fortune500companieswereITcompaniesDellComputerisoneofthem–itwasstartedin1984andnowhas65,000employeesworldwide1-6INTRODUCTIONYouliveinadigiINTRODUCTIONThisbookisabouttheuseoftechnology(calledmanagementinformationsystemsorMIS)inbusinessThemodules(thereare13)teachyouhowtousetechnologytoincreaseyourpersonalproductivityThechapters(thereare9)illustratehowbusinessesusetechnologyto…IncreasemarketshareandprofitsEliminatetimeandlocationboundariesEtc1-7INTRODUCTIONThisbookisaboutBusinessMustDriveTechnology1-8BusinessMustDriveTechnologyBusinessMustDriveTechnologyAssessstateofcompetitionandindustrypressuresaffectingyourorganizationDeterminebusinessstrategiestoaddresscompetitiveandindustrypressuresIdentifybusinessprocessestosupportyourchosenbusinessstrategiesAligntechnologytoolswiththosebusinessprocessesNEVERDOTHISINREVERSE!!1-9BusinessMustDriveTechnologyCHAPTERORGANIZATIONManagementInformationSystemsLearningOutcome#1Porter’sFiveForcesModelLearningOutcome#2Porter’sThreeGenericStrategiesLearningOutcome#3Value-ChainAnalysisLearningOutcome#41-10CHAPTERORGANIZATIONManagementMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSMIS–planningfor,development,management,anduseofITtoolstohelppeopleperformalltasksrelatedtoinformationprocessingandmanagementThreekeyresourcesinMISInformationPeopleInformationtechnology1-11MANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSInformationResourceIntellectualassethierarchy–data,information,businessintelligence,knowledgeData–rawfactsthatdescribeaparticularphenomenonsuchasthecurrenttemperature,thepriceofmovierental,oryourageInformation–datathathaveaparticularmeaningwithinaspecificcontext1-12InformationResourceIntellectuInformationResourceYourage–apieceofdataInformationisoftenaggregateddatathathasmeaningsuchasaverageage,youngestandoldestcustomer,andahistogramofcustomerages1-13InformationResourceYourage–InformationResourceBusinessintelligence(BI)–collectiveinformationabout…CustomersCompetitorsBusinesspartnersCompetitiveenvironmentBIisinformationonsteroidsBIcanhelpyoumakeimportant,strategicdecisions1-14InformationResourceBusinessiInformationResourceBIoftencombinesmultiplesetsofinformation–customers,salespeople,andpurchasesinthiscase.1-15InformationResourceBIoftencInformationResourceKnowledge–broadtermthatcandescribemanythings…ContextualexplanationforbusinessintelligenceActionstotaketoaffectbusinessintelligenceIntellectualassetssuchaspatentsandtrademarksOrganizationalknow-howforthingssuchasbestpractices1-16InformationResourceKnowledgeInformationResource–QualityAttributesTimelinessWhenyouneeditDescribingtherighttimeperiodLocation(nomatterwhereyouare)Form(audio,text,animation,etc)Validity(credibility)LackofanyoftheabovecancreateGIGO(garbage-in,garbage-out)inadecision-makingprocess1-17InformationResource–QualityInformationResource–OrganizationalPerspective1-18InformationResource–OrganizInformationResource–FlowsofInformationUpward–describesstateoftheorganizationbasedontransactionsDownward–strategies,goals,anddirectivesthatoriginateatahigherlevelandarepassedtolowerlevelsHorizontal–betweenfunctionalbusinessunitsandworkteamsOutward/inward–fromandtocustomers,suppliers,distributors,andotherpartners1-19InformationResource–FlowsoInformationResource–WhatItDescribesInternalinformation–specificoperationalaspectsoftheorganizationExternalinformation–environmentsurroundingtheorganizationObjectiveinformation–quantifiablydescribessomethingthatisknownSubjectiveinformation–attemptstodescribesomethingthatisunknown1-20InformationResource–WhatItPeopleResourcePeoplearethemostimportantresourceinanyorganization,withafocusonTechnologyliteracyInformationliteracyEthicalresponsibilities1-21PeopleResourcePeoplearethePeopleResourceTechnology-literateknowledgeworker–knowshowandwhentoapplytechnologyInformation-literateknowledgeworkerCandefineinformationneedsKnowshowandwheretoobtaininformationUnderstandsinformationActsappropriatelybasedoninformationEthics–principlesandstandardsthatguideourbehaviortowardotherpeople1-22PeopleResourceTechnology-litePeopleResource-EthicsYoualwayswantyouractionstofallinQuadrantI–bothethicalandlegal.1-23PeopleResource-EthicsYoualInformationTechnologyResourceInformationtechnology(IT)–computer-basedtoolsthatpeopleusetoworkwithinformationHardware–physicaldevicesthatmakeupacomputerSoftware–setofinstructionsthatyourhardwareexecutestocarryoutaspecifictaskforyou1-24InformationTechnologyResourcInformationTechnology–Hardware1-25InformationTechnology–HardwInformationTechnology–HardwareInputdevice–toolforenteringinformationandcommandsOutputdevice–toolforseeorhearingresultsStoragedevice–toolforstoringinformationCPU–hardwarethatinterpretsandexecutesinstructions(RAMtemporarilystoresinformationandsoftwarefortheCPU)Telecommunicationsdevice–forsendinginfoConnectingdevices–likecables,ports,etc.1-26InformationTechnology–HardwInformationTechnology–SoftwareTwotypesofsoftwareApplicationsoftware–enablesyoutosolvespecificproblemsandperformspecifictasks(Word,payroll,inventorymanagement,etc)Systemsoftware–handlestasksspecifictotechnologymanagement(operatingsystem,anti-virus,etc)SeeExtendedLearningModuleAforareviewofIThardwareandsoftware1-27InformationTechnology–SoftwPORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODELTheFiveForcesModelhelpsbusinesspeopleunderstandtherelativeattractivenessofanindustryandtheindustry’scompetitivepressuresintermsofBuyerpowerSupplierpowerThreatofsubstituteproductsorservicesThreatofnewentrantsRivalryamongexistingcompetitors1-28PORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODELThePORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODEL1-29PORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODEL1-29BuyerPowerBuyerpower–highwhenbuyershavemanychoicesandlowwhentheirchoicesarefewCompetitiveadvantagesarecreatedtogetbuyerstostaywithagivencompanyNetFlix–setupandmaintainyourmovielistUnitedAirlines–frequentflyerprogramAppleiTunes–buy/manageyourmusicDell–customizeacomputerpurchase1-30BuyerPowerBuyerpower–highBuyerPowerCompetitiveadvantage–providingaproductorserviceinawaythatcustomersvaluemorethanwhatthecompetitionisabletodoFirst-moveradvantage–significantimpactongainingmarketsharebybeingthefirsttomarketwithacompetitiveadvantageAllcompetitiveadvantagesarefleetingE.G.,allairlinesnowhavefrequentflyerprograms1-31BuyerPowerCompetitiveadvantaSupplierPowerSupplierpower–highwhenbuyershavefewchoicesandlowwhenchoicesaremanyTheoppositeofbuyerpower1-32SupplierPowerSupplierpower–ThreatofSubstituteProductsandServicesThreatofsubstituteproductsandservices–highwhentherearemanyalternativesforbuyersandlowwhentherearefewalternativesSwitchingcostscanreducethisthreatSwitchingcost–acostthatmakesbuyersreluctanttoswitchtoanotherproduct/serviceLong-termcontractwithfinancialpenaltyGreatservicePersonalizedproductsbasedonpurchasehistory1-33ThreatofSubstituteProductsThreatofNewEntrantsThreatofnewentrants–highwhenitiseasyforcompetitorstoenterthemarketandlowwhenentrybarriersaresignificantEntrybarrier–productorservicefeaturethatcustomershavecometoexpectandthatmustbeofferedbyanenteringorganizationBanking–ATMs,onlinebillpay,etc1-34ThreatofNewEntrantsThreatoRivalryAmongExistingCompetitorsRivalryamongexistingcompetitors–highwhencompetitionisfierceandlowwhencompetitionismorecomplacentGeneraltrendistowardmorecompetitioninalmostallindustriesIThascertainlyintensifiedcompetitioninallsectorsofbusiness1-35RivalryAmongExistingCompetiPORTER’STHREEGENERICSTRATEGIESPorteridentified3genericbusinessstrategiesforbeatingthecompetitionOverallcostleadershipDifferentiationFocus1-36PORTER’STHREEGENERICSTRATEGOverallCostLeadershipOverallcostleadership–offeringthesameorbetterqualityproductorserviceatapricethatislessthanwhatanyofthecompetitionisabletodoWal-Mart(AlwaysLowPrices,EveryDayLowPrices)Dell–acomputerthewayyouwantitatanaffordablepriceHyundaiandKia–reliablelow-costcarsGrocerystores–high-volume,low-margin1-37OverallCostLeadershipOverallDifferentiationDifferentiation–offeringaproductorservicethatisperceivedasbeing“unique”inthemarketplaceHummer–LikeNothingElseAudiandMichelin–safetyLund’s&Byerly’s–high-endgrocerystore1-38DifferentiationDifferentiationFocusFocus–focusingonofferingproductsorservicesToaparticularsegmentorbuyergroupWithinasegmentofaproductlineToaspecificgeographicmarketExamplesRestaurantsPhysicianofficesLegaloffices1-39FocusFocus–focusingonofferAlternativeBusinessStrategyFrameworksAbove-the-lineversusbelow-the-line–shouldyourstrategyfocusonreducingcosts(belowtheline)orincreasingrevenues(abovetheline)Run-grow-transform(RGT)framework–theallocationintermsofpercentagesofITdollarsonvarioustypesofbusinessstrategies1-40AlternativeBusinessStrategyAbove-the-LinevsBelow-the-Line1-41Above-the-LinevsBelow-the-LiAbove-the-LinevsBelow-the-LineAbove-the-line(increaserevenue)ReachnewcustomersOffernewproductsCross-sellingOfferingcomplimentaryproductsBelow-the-line(minimizeexpenses)OptimizingmanufacturingprocessesDecreasingtransportationcostsMinimizingerrorsinaprocess1-42Above-the-LinevsBelow-the-LiRGTFrameworkHowwillyouallocateITdollarstoRun–optimizingexecutionofexistingprocessesGrow–increasingmarketshare,products,andserviceofferingsTransform–innovatingbusinessprocesses,products,and/orservices1-43RGTFrameworkHowwillyoualloPorter,TopLine/BottomLine,RGTRun=overallcostleadership=belowthelineGrow=focusanddifferentiation=abovethelineTransform=(new)differentiation=abovetheline(whenthefocusisinnovation)1-44Porter,TopLine/BottomLine,VALUE-CHAINANALYSISValue-chainanalysis–systematicapproachtoassessingandimprovingthevalueofbusinessprocessesValuechain–chainorseriesofbusinessprocesses,eachofwhichaddsvaluetoyourorganization’sproductsorservicesBusinessprocess–standardizedsetofactivitiesthataccomplishesaspecifictaskTwotypesofprocesses:PrimaryandSupport1-45VALUE-CHAINANALYSISValue-chaiVALUE-CHAINANALYSIS1-46VALUE-CHAINANALYSIS1-46VALUE-CHAINANALYSISPrimaryvalueprocess–takesinrawmaterialsandmakes,delivers,marketsandsells,andservicesyourproductsandservicesSupportvalueprocess–supportstheprimaryvalueprocessesAskcustomerswhichprocessesaddvalueandwhichprocessesreducevalueFocusITappropriately1-47VALUE-CHAINANALYSISPrimaryvaVALUE-CHAINANALYSISVALUE-ADDEDPROCESSES1-48VALUE-CHAINANALYSISVALUE-ADDEVALUE-CHAINANALYSISVALUE-REDUCINGPROCESSES1-49VALUE-CHAINANALYSISVALUE-REDU謝謝！謝謝！50信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap信息時代的管理信息系統(tǒng)Chap51STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMESDescribeMISandthe3importantorganizationalresourceswithinit–people,information,andIT.DescribehowtousePorter’sFiveForcesModeltoevaluatetherelativeattractivenessofanindustry.CompareandcontrastPorter’s3genericstrategies,toplineversusbottomline,andtherun-grow-transformframeworkfordevelopingbusinessstrategy.Describetheroleofvalue-chainanalysisforidentifyingvalue-addedand-reducingprocesses.1-52STUDENTLEARNINGOUTCOMESDescrISYOURSOCIALSECURITYNUMBERWORTH$98?Informationtechnologyhasgreatlyacceleratedboththe“good”andthe“bad”ITcanbeusedtoincreaseprofit,reducecosts,increaseservicequality,andbenefitsocietyITcanalsobeusedtostealyourpersonalinformation,commitfraudulentacts,etcManysitesontheWebare–rightnow–sellingyourpersonalinformation1-53ISYOURSOCIALSECURITYNUMBERWhatYourPersonalInformationIsWorth?$490–creditcardnumberandPIN$147–driver’slicensenumber$147–birthcertificate$6–PayPallogonandpassword$78-$294–billingdataincludingaccountnumber,address,birthdate,etc1-54WhatYourPersonalInformationQuestionsHaveyou,afriend,orafamilymemberbeenavictimofidentitytheft?Ifso,tellthestorytoyourclass.Howoftendoyoubuyyourcreditreport?Didyouknowyougetoneforfreeannually?Istechnologygoodorbad?1-55QuestionsHaveyou,afriend,oINTRODUCTIONYouliveinadigitalageAverageAmericanreliesonmorethan250computersperdayAccordingtoTimemagazine,14%ofcellphoneusersstoppedhavingsextotakeaphonecall45ofthe2008Fortune500companieswereITcompaniesDellComputerisoneofthem–itwasstartedin1984andnowhas65,000employeesworldwide1-56INTRODUCTIONYouliveinadigiINTRODUCTIONThisbookisabouttheuseoftechnology(calledmanagementinformationsystemsorMIS)inbusinessThemodules(thereare13)teachyouhowtousetechnologytoincreaseyourpersonalproductivityThechapters(thereare9)illustratehowbusinessesusetechnologyto…IncreasemarketshareandprofitsEliminatetimeandlocationboundariesEtc1-57INTRODUCTIONThisbookisaboutBusinessMustDriveTechnology1-58BusinessMustDriveTechnologyBusinessMustDriveTechnologyAssessstateofcompetitionandindustrypressuresaffectingyourorganizationDeterminebusinessstrategiestoaddresscompetitiveandindustrypressuresIdentifybusinessprocessestosupportyourchosenbusinessstrategiesAligntechnologytoolswiththosebusinessprocessesNEVERDOTHISINREVERSE!!1-59BusinessMustDriveTechnologyCHAPTERORGANIZATIONManagementInformationSystemsLearningOutcome#1Porter’sFiveForcesModelLearningOutcome#2Porter’sThreeGenericStrategiesLearningOutcome#3Value-ChainAnalysisLearningOutcome#41-60CHAPTERORGANIZATIONManagementMANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSMIS–planningfor,development,management,anduseofITtoolstohelppeopleperformalltasksrelatedtoinformationprocessingandmanagementThreekeyresourcesinMISInformationPeopleInformationtechnology1-61MANAGEMENTINFORMATIONSYSTEMSInformationResourceIntellectualassethierarchy–data,information,businessintelligence,knowledgeData–rawfactsthatdescribeaparticularphenomenonsuchasthecurrenttemperature,thepriceofmovierental,oryourageInformation–datathathaveaparticularmeaningwithinaspecificcontext1-62InformationResourceIntellectuInformationResourceYourage–apieceofdataInformationisoftenaggregateddatathathasmeaningsuchasaverageage,youngestandoldestcustomer,andahistogramofcustomerages1-63InformationResourceYourage–InformationResourceBusinessintelligence(BI)–collectiveinformationabout…CustomersCompetitorsBusinesspartnersCompetitiveenvironmentBIisinformationonsteroidsBIcanhelpyoumakeimportant,strategicdecisions1-64InformationResourceBusinessiInformationResourceBIoftencombinesmultiplesetsofinformation–customers,salespeople,andpurchasesinthiscase.1-65InformationResourceBIoftencInformationResourceKnowledge–broadtermthatcandescribemanythings…ContextualexplanationforbusinessintelligenceActionstotaketoaffectbusinessintelligenceIntellectualassetssuchaspatentsandtrademarksOrganizationalknow-howforthingssuchasbestpractices1-66InformationResourceKnowledgeInformationResource–QualityAttributesTimelinessWhenyouneeditDescribingtherighttimeperiodLocation(nomatterwhereyouare)Form(audio,text,animation,etc)Validity(credibility)LackofanyoftheabovecancreateGIGO(garbage-in,garbage-out)inadecision-makingprocess1-67InformationResource–QualityInformationResource–OrganizationalPerspective1-68InformationResource–OrganizInformationResource–FlowsofInformationUpward–describesstateoftheorganizationbasedontransactionsDownward–strategies,goals,anddirectivesthatoriginateatahigherlevelandarepassedtolowerlevelsHorizontal–betweenfunctionalbusinessunitsandworkteamsOutward/inward–fromandtocustomers,suppliers,distributors,andotherpartners1-69InformationResource–FlowsoInformationResource–WhatItDescribesInternalinformation–specificoperationalaspectsoftheorganizationExternalinformation–environmentsurroundingtheorganizationObjectiveinformation–quantifiablydescribessomethingthatisknownSubjectiveinformation–attemptstodescribesomethingthatisunknown1-70InformationResource–WhatItPeopleResourcePeoplearethemostimportantresourceinanyorganization,withafocusonTechnologyliteracyInformationliteracyEthicalresponsibilities1-71PeopleResourcePeoplearethePeopleResourceTechnology-literateknowledgeworker–knowshowandwhentoapplytechnologyInformation-literateknowledgeworkerCandefineinformationneedsKnowshowandwheretoobtaininformationUnderstandsinformationActsappropriatelybasedoninformationEthics–principlesandstandardsthatguideourbehaviortowardotherpeople1-72PeopleResourceTechnology-litePeopleResource-EthicsYoualwayswantyouractionstofallinQuadrantI–bothethicalandlegal.1-73PeopleResource-EthicsYoualInformationTechnologyResourceInformationtechnology(IT)–computer-basedtoolsthatpeopleusetoworkwithinformationHardware–physicaldevicesthatmakeupacomputerSoftware–setofinstructionsthatyourhardwareexecutestocarryoutaspecifictaskforyou1-74InformationTechnologyResourcInformationTechnology–Hardware1-75InformationTechnology–HardwInformationTechnology–HardwareInputdevice–toolforenteringinformationandcommandsOutputdevice–toolforseeorhearingresultsStoragedevice–toolforstoringinformationCPU–hardwarethatinterpretsandexecutesinstructions(RAMtemporarilystoresinformationandsoftwarefortheCPU)Telecommunicationsdevice–forsendinginfoConnectingdevices–likecables,ports,etc.1-76InformationTechnology–HardwInformationTechnology–SoftwareTwotypesofsoftwareApplicationsoftware–enablesyoutosolvespecificproblemsandperformspecifictasks(Word,payroll,inventorymanagement,etc)Systemsoftware–handlestasksspecifictotechnologymanagement(operatingsystem,anti-virus,etc)SeeExtendedLearningModuleAforareviewofIThardwareandsoftware1-77InformationTechnology–SoftwPORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODELTheFiveForcesModelhelpsbusinesspeopleunderstandtherelativeattractivenessofanindustryandtheindustry’scompetitivepressuresintermsofBuyerpowerSupplierpowerThreatofsubstituteproductsorservicesThreatofnewentrantsRivalryamongexistingcompetitors1-78PORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODELThePORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODEL1-79PORTER’SFIVEFORCESMODEL1-29BuyerPowerBuyerpower–highwhenbuyershavemanychoicesandlowwhentheirchoicesarefewCompetitiveadvantagesarecreatedtogetbuyerstostaywithagivencompanyNetFlix–setupandmaintainyourmovielistUnitedAirlines–frequentflyerprogramAppleiTunes–buy/manageyourmusicDell–customizeacomputerpurchase1-80BuyerPowerBuyerpower–highBuyerPowerCompetitiveadvantage–providingaproductorserviceinawaythatcustomersvaluemorethanwhatthecompetitionisabletodoFirst-moveradvantage–significantimpactongainingmarketsharebybeingthefirsttomarketwithacompetitiveadvantageAllcompetitiveadvantagesarefleetingE.G.,allairlinesnowhavefrequentflyerprograms1-81BuyerPowerCompetitiveadvantaSupplierPowerSupplierpower–highwhenbuyershavefewchoicesandlowwhenchoicesaremanyTheoppositeofbuyerpower1-82SupplierPowerSupplierpower–ThreatofSubstituteProductsandServicesThreatofsubstituteproductsandservices–highwhentherearemanyalternativesforbuyersandlowwhentherearefewalternativesSwitchingcostscanreducethisthreatSwitchingcost–acostthatmakesbuyersreluctanttoswitchtoanotherproduct/serviceLong-termcontractwithfinancialpenaltyGreatservicePersonalizedproductsbasedonpurchasehistory1-83ThreatofSubstituteProductsThreatofNewEntrantsThreatofnewentrants–highwhenitiseasyforcompetitorstoenterthemarketandlowwhenentrybarriersaresignificantEntrybarrier–productorservicefeaturethatcustomershavecometoexpectandthatmustbeofferedbyanenteringorganizationBanking–ATMs,onlinebillpay,etc1-84ThreatofNewEntrantsThreatoRivalryAmongExistingCompetitorsRivalryamongexistingcompetitors–highwhencompetitionisfierceandlowwhencompetitionismorecomplacentGeneraltrendistowardmorecompetitioninalmostallindustriesIThascertainlyintensifiedcompetitioninallsectorsofbusiness1-85RivalryAmongExistingCompetiPORTER’STHREEGENERICSTRATEGIESPorteridentified3genericbusinessstrategiesforbeatingthecompetitionOverallcostleadershipDifferentiationFocus1-86PORTER’STHREEGENERICSTRATEGOverallCostLeadershipOverallcostleadership–offeringthesameorbetterqualityproductorserviceatapricethatislessthanwhatanyofthecompetitionisabletodoWal-Mart(AlwaysLowPrices,EveryDayLowPrices)Dell–acomputerthewayyouwantitatanaffordablepriceHyundaiandKia–reliablelow-costcarsGrocerystores–high-volume,low-margin1-87OverallCostLeadershipOverallDifferentiationDifferentiation–offerin