David Nunan第二語言教與學(xué)課后答案

QUESTIONSANDTASKS1Whattwocompetingviewsofeducationarepresentedinthefirstsectionofthechapter?【答案］(1)Thefunctionofaneducationalsystemisthetransmissionofareceivedbodyoffacts,values,andproceduresforconceptualizingandaddingtothatbodyofknowledge.(2)Thefunctionofaneducationalsystemistocreatetheconditionswherebylearnersmightgeneratetheirownskillsandknowledge.2Inyourview,whatarethethreemostimportantpointsaboutexperientiallearningmadeinthechapter?【答案】(1)Itfacilitatespersonalgrowth;(2)Ittakesintoaccountdifferencesinlearningability;(3)Itisresponsivebothtolearnerneedsandpracticalpedagogicalconsiderations.3Whatisthedifferencebetweeninductivelearninganddeductivelearning?【答案】(1)Deductivelearningisaprocessofaddingtoourknowledgebyworkingfromprinciplestoexamples;(2)Ininduction,oneworksfromexamplestoprinciples,rules,andgeneralizations.4Whatiscommunicativelanguageleaching,andwhatfactorsledtoitsemergenceinELT?【答案】(1)Communicativelanguageteachingregardslanguageasasystemfbrexpressingmeanings.(2)TheinsightthatthereoughttobedifferentsyllabusesfbrdifferentlearnersledtotheemergenceinELT.5Identifytwodifferentsensesinwhichthetermlearner-centeredcanheused.【答案】(1)Alearning-centeredclassroomisdesignedtoenablethelearnertomakecriticalpedagogicaldecisionsbysystematicallytrainingthemintheskillstheyneedtomakesuchdecisions;(2)Alearning-centeredclassroomisconsistentwithaparticularlineofsecondlanguageacquisitionresearchthatsuggestsacquisitionisfacilitatedwhenopportunitiesfbrlearnerstointeractaremaximized.6Wouldalearner-centeredapproachworkinyoursituation?Whyorwhynot?【答案】Suggestedreasons:Theconceptoflearner-centerededucationhasbeencontroversialinoursituation,mainlybecauseitissusceptibletomultipleinterpretations.Someteachersreactnegativelytotheconcept,becausetheyfeelthat,implicitinthenotion,isadevaluingoftheirownprofessionalroles.Othersbelievethatitinvolveshandingovertothelearnerdutiesandresponsibilitiesthatrightlybelongtotheteacher.7WhichoftheprinciplesofadultlearningarticulatedbyBrundageandMacKeracherdoyouagreewith?Whichdoyoudisagreewith?Howdotheprinciplesrelatetoahumanistic,experientialviewofeducation?【答案】Agree:Adultswhovaluetheirownexperienceasaresourcefbrfurtherlearningorwhoseexperienceisvaluedbyothersarebetterlearners;Adultslearnbestwhentheyareinvolvedindevelopinglearningobjectivesfbrthemselvesthatarecongruentwiththeircurrentandidealizedself-concept.Adultshavealreadydevelopedorganizedwaysoffocusingon,takingin,andprocessinginformation.Thesearereferredtoascognitivestyle.@Thelearnerreactstoallexperienceashe/sheperceivesit,notastheteacherpresentsit.⑤Adultsenterintolearningactivitieswithanorganizedsetofdescriptionsandfeelingsaboutthemselvesthatinfluencesthelearningprocess.Disagree:①Adultsaremoreconcernedwithwhethertheyarechanginginthedirectionoftheirownidealizedselfconceptthanwhethertheyaremeetingstandardsandobjectivessetforthembyothers.Adultsdonotlearnwhenoverstimulatedorwhenexperiencingextremestressoranxiety.③Thoseadultswhocanprocessinformationthroughmultiplechannelsandhavelearnthowtolearnarethemostproductivelearners.④Adultslearnbestwhenthecontentispersonallyrelevanttopastexperienceorpresentconcernsandthelearningprocessisrelevanttolifeexperiences.⑤Adultslearnbestwhennovelinformationispresentedthroughavarietyofsensorymodesandexperienceswithsufficientrepetitionsandvariationsonthemestoallowdistinctionsinpatternstoemerge.Thisliststronglyreflectsthehumanisticandexperientialtraditionsthatemphasizetheconstructiveroleofthelearnerwithinthelearningprocess.8Doyouagreewiththeassertionthatthereisadegreeofnegotiationineveryclassroom?Thinkofaclassthatyoutaught,observed,ortookpartinasalearnerinwhichnegotiationoccurredandgivethreetofiveexamplesofnegotiation.【答案】Therearelevelsanddegreesofnegotiation.Example:T:Oneofthethings,er,wepracticeinthiscourse...is...orsomeofthethingswepracticearelearningstrategies.Andoneofthelearningstrategiesthatwillhelpyoulearnnewwordsisthelearningstrategyof“classifying".Doyouknowwhatclassifyingmeans?Ss:NonoT:Haveyouheardthiswordbefore?Ss:NoT:Classifyingmeansputtingthingsthataresimilartogetheringroups.OK?SoifIsaid,er,Iwantallofthegirlstogodowntothatcomeroftheroom,andalltheboystogointothiscomeroftheroom,Iwouldbeclassifyingtheclassaccordingtotheirsexortheirgender.WhatI'dlikeyoutodonowinTask5istoclassifysomeofthewordsfromthelistinTask4.OK?[Intheprecedingtask,studentshadreadapostcardandcircledthewordsthatdescribepeople.Theywerethengivenathree-columntablewiththeheadings:"color","age”,and“size”.]9Identifythreedifferencesbetweena“traditional"andai€task-based,'languageclassroom【答案】(1)Anemphasisonlearningtocommunicatethroughinteractioninthetargetlanguageina“task-based^languageclassroom.⑵Theintroductionofauthentictextsintothelearningsituationina“task-based”languageclassroom.⑶Provisionofopportunitiesforlearnerstofocus,notonlyonlanguageitself,butalsoonthelearningprocessina“task-based"languageclassroom.1OStudyaunitofworkfromatextbookthatyouarefamiliarwith.Identifywaysinwhichtheunitcanbemodifiedtogivelearnersanopportunitytomakechoicesanddecisions,andcontributetheirownideas.【答案】Example:Studythefollowingextracts.Oneisapieceofgenuineconversation,theotheristakenfromalanguageteachingtextbook.Whatdifferencescanyouseebetweenthetwoextracts?Whatlanguagedoyouthinkthenonauthenticconversationistryingtoteach?Whatgrammarwouldyouneedinordertolakepartintheauthenticconversation?Text1A:Excuseme,please.Doyouknowwherethenearestbankis?B:Well,theCityBankisn'tfarfromhere.Doyouknowwherethemainpostofficeis?A:No,notreally.Tmjustpassingthrough.B:Well.Firstgodownthroughthisstreettothetrafficlight.A:OK.B:Well.Firstgodownthroughthisstreettothetrafficlight.Text2HowdoIgettotheKensingtonRoad?WellyougodownFullartonRoad...A:…what,downOldBelair,andaround...?B:Yeah.Andthenyougostraight...A:...pastthroughthehospital?B:Yeah,keepinggoingstraight,pasttheracecoursetotheroundabout.Youknowthebigroundabout?Text1A:OK.B:ThenturnleftandgowestonsunsetBoulevardforabouttwoblocks.Thebankisonyourright,justpastthepostoffice.Allright.Thanks!You'rewelcome.[Ihavenotacknowledgedthesourceofthisextract,becauseIdonotwishtoappeartobecriticizingthetextfromwhichitwasextracted.Itiscitedherefbrcontrastivepurposesonly.]Text2A:Yeah.B:AndKensingtonRoad'sofftotheright.A:What,offtheroundabout?B:Yeah.A:Right.Thedisparitybetweencontrivedandauthenticdatacanbeseenintheaboveextractsthat,themselves,havebeenturnedintoaclassroomtask.Theadvantageofusingauthenticdataisthatlearnersencountertargetlanguageitems(inthecaseoftheexamplebelow,comparativeadjectivesandadverbs)inthekindsofcontextswheretheynaturallyoccur,ratherthanincontextsthathavebeenconcoctedbyatextbookwriter.Ultimately,thiswillassistlearnersbecausetheywillexperiencethelanguageitemininteractionwithothercloselyrelatedgrammaticalanddiscourseelements.11Designalinksequenceoftasksusingtheideaspresentedinthefinalsectionofthechapter.【答案】OngeneralcognitivedemandsofthetaskAnemphasisonlinguisticfactors(3)Supportinglearnersinperformingatasksimilartothetasktheywillperformintheduring-taskphaseofthelesson④Non-taskpreparationactivities:brainstorming;mindmap⑵While(During)-taskphase;Structure:whole-classvs.smallgroupwork;individualorinteractionSetatimeforcompletingthetask.Varythenumberofparticipants.Introduceasurpriseelement.Tellstudentstheywillhavetopresentareporttothewholeclass.Pairandgroupworkareseenascentraltotask-basedteachingPost-taskphaseToprovideanopportunityforarepeatingperformanceofthetaskToencouragereflectiononhowthetaskwasperformed@Toencourageattentiontoform12Carryoutasurveyofyourstudentsandcolleaguesliketheoneonpage33.【答案】Example:Imaginethatyouaregoingasanexchangestudenttoanothercountry.Completethefollowingsurvey(checktheappropriatespaceunderthe'YOU'column.)YOU YOURPARTNERThiswouldbotfierus alotalittlenotatallalot alittlenotatalldieweadier diefood gettingaround tipping language _ _ _ _ _ _socialcustoms beingawayfromhome meetingpeople moneymatters shopping _ _ _ _ _ _、QUESTIONSANDTASKS1Whyissecondlanguageacquisitionfundamentallydifferentfromfirstlanguageacquisition?【答案】Peoplewholearnasecondlanguagedifferfromchildrenlearningtheirfirstlanguageinanumberofways.Perhapsthemoststrikingoftheseisthatveryfewadultsecond-languagelearnersreachthesamecompetenceasnativespeakersofthatlanguage.Childrenlearningasecondlanguagearemorelikelytoachievenative-likefluencythanadults,butingeneralitisveryrareforsomeonespeakingasecondlanguagetopasscompletelyforanativespeaker.Whenalearner'sspeechplateausinthiswayitisknownasfossilization.Inaddition,someerrorsthatsecond-languagelearnersmakeintheirspeechoriginateintheirfirstlanguage.Also,whenpeoplelearnasecondlanguage,thewaytheyspeaktheirfirstlanguagechangesinsubtleways.Thesechangescanbewithanyaspectoflanguage,frompronunciationandsyntaxtogesturesthelearnermakesandthethingstheytendtonotice.2Whyistheissueoftheeffectofchronologicalageonacquisitionmorecomplexthanitatfirstappears?［答案】Becauseitisnecessarytodistinguishbetweentheeffectofageontherouteofacquisition(whetherthesametargetlanguageitemsareacquiredinthesameorderfordifferentlearners),therate(howrapidlythelearnersacquirethelanguage),andultimateattainment(howproficienttheyendupbeing).3Whatisthe“criticalperiod”,andwhatisitmeanttoexplain?【答案】The“criticalperiod,,referstoalimitedperiodoftimeinthedevelopmentofanorganismduringwhichaparticularbehaviorcanbeacquired.Thecriticalperiodhypothesisarguesthat,biologicalchangesinthebrainaroundpubertyresultinthetwohemispheresofthebrainfunctioningindependently.Aftertheseneurologicalchangeshavetakenplace,acquiringanotherlanguagebecomesincreasinglydifficult.4Whatisthe^comprehensibleinputhypothesis,,andwhatisitmeanttoexplain?【答案】Comprehensibleinput:Ahypothesisthatlearnerswillacquirelanguagebestwhentheyaregiventheappropriateinput.Theinputshouldbeeasyenoughthattheycanunderstandit,butjustbeyondtheirlevelofcompetence.Ifthelearnerisatleveli,theninputshouldcomeatleveli+1.ComprehensibleinputisanessentialcomponentinStephenKrashcn'sInputHypothesis,whereregulatedinputwillleadtoacquisitionsolongastheinputischallenging,yeteasyenoughtounderstandwithoutconsciouseffortatlearning.5Inwhatareasdoesinstructionmakeadifferencetoacquisition?Inwhatareadoesitnotmakeadifference?【答案】Instructionmakesadifferencetoacquisitioninthefollowingaspects①grammaticalforms;②bothmeaning-andform-focused;③onintegrativeaswellasdiscrete-pointtests;④inSmallgrouptasks.⑤declarativeknowledgeInstructiondoesn'tmakesadifferencetoacquisitioninthefollowingaspects①ontheacquisitionofquestionforms.②inacquisitionofsomestructures(tenseandaspect)(3)oncomprehensibleinput④proceduralknowledge6Whyissmallgroupworkbeneficialforlanguageacquisition?【答案】Because(1)thepurposeoflanguageistocommunicateandsocializewithothers,andit'sbesttolearnsomethingwithinitscontextofusage.Workinginsmallgroupsallowspeopletotrulylearnanduseanewlanguageinthewayitisintendedtobeused.Workinginsmallgroupsisalsolessintimidatingthandoingeverythinginlargegroups,anditallowseveryonetheabilitytoparticipateandpracticethelanguageinawaythatisnaturalandconducivetolanguageacquisition.Lastly,byworkinginsmallgroups,itmakesiteasierforpeopletopracticetheirlisteningandspeakingskillsasopposedtostrictlyreadingandwritinginthelanguage.7Makeasummaryoftheresearchintotheeffectoflearnerstrategytrainingonacquisition.【答案】Despitethecurrentinterestinlearningstylesandstrategies,investigationsintotheeffectoflearnerstrategytrainingarerelativelyuncommon,andresultsarerathermixed.Aroundfifteenyearsago,CohenandAphek(1980)lookedattheeffectofstrategytrainingonvocabularyacquisition.Theyfoundthatcertaintechniques,suchasthepairedassociatestechnique,didresultinsuccessfulacquisition.Ataboutthesametime.Carroll(1981)lookedatinductivelearning.Inthisstudy,itwasfoundthattheabilitytostudysamplesoflanguageandinducttherulesgoverningthatparticularaspectoflanguagewasanaspectoflanguageaptitude.O'Malley(1987)studiedtheefleetofdifferenttypesofstrategytraining(metacognitive,cognitive,andsocioaffective)ondifferentlanguageskills,andfoundthatthetraininghadasignificanteffectonspeaking,butnotonlistening.8Whatdoyouthinkarethethreemostimportantcharacteristicsofthegoodlanguagelearner?Ifpossible,interviewanumberofgoodlearners(learnerswhohavedevelopedhighlevelsofcommunicativeskillinarelativelyshorttime).Arethereanypatterns?DotheresultsreflectinanywaytheresultsobtainedbyRubinandThompson?【答案】1thinkthethreemostimportantcharacteristicsofthegoodlanguagelearnerare:①findtheirownway;②organizeinformationaboutlanguage;?creativeandexperimentwithlanguage.Therearefourpatterns:"Concrete"learners;"Analytical“l(fā)earners;*fcCommunicative,,learners;<4Authority-orientedMlearners.TheresultsshowasRubinandThompsonsuggest,thatgoodorefficientlearnerstendloexhibitspecificcharacteristics,astheygoaboutlearningasecondlanguage.9Interviewseverallanguagelearnersaboutwhatworksforthemandwhatdoesn'tworkfbrthem.Canyouidentifyanypatterns?Whatsimilaritiesanddifferencesemerge?【答案】(1)Theresultsoftheinterview:Thingsthathelpedmost?ConversationwithEnglishspeakers/ingroups?Findingopportunitiestopracticeoutsideclass③Accessingmedia:radio,TV,newspapersFormalclasses/leamingwithateacherMotivationReadingGrammarrules/drillsListeningPronunciationVocabularyThingsthathelpedleastLearninggrammar/drillsLackofopportunitytouseEnglishoutsideclassPoorteachingBeingcriticized/punishedPracticingwithL2speakers/poorLIspeakersClassestoobig/toomanylevelsUseLItoomuchAccessingmediaFearofmakingmistakesLackofmotivation?Childishmaterials,e.g.,picturebooks?Lackofaudio-visualfacilities?Rigidtimetablesandprograms?Readingaloudinclassroom?Memorizing?Notimetostudy?WritingTherearefourpatterns:“Concrete"learnersTheselearnerstendtolikegames,pictures,films,video,usingcassettes,talkinginpairs,andpracticingEnglishoutsideclass."Analytical”learnersTheselearnerslikedstudyinggrammar,studyingEnglishbooksandreadingnewspapers,studyingalone,findingtheirownmistakes,andworkingonproblemssetbytheteacher.③“Communicative“l(fā)earnersThesestudentsliketolearnbywatching,listeningtonativespeakers,talkingtofriendsinEnglishandwatchingtelevisioninEnglish,usingEnglishoutofclassinstores,trains,andsoon,learningnewwordsbyhearingthem,andlearningbyconversations.44Autho^ity-orientcd^^learnersTheselearnerspreferredtheteachertoexplaineverything,likedtohavetheirowntextbook,towriteeverythinginanotebook,tostudygrammar,learnbyreading,andlearnnewwordsbyseeingthem.Similaritiesanddifferences①similarities:Motivation,apreparednesstotakerisks,andthedeterminationtoapplytheirdevelopinglanguageskillsoutsidetheclassroomcharacterizedmostoftheresponsesfromthesegoodlanguagelearners.?differences:contextsandenvironmentsinwhichthesubjectslearnedEnglisharediverse.QUESTIONSANDTASKS1WhatwasthemajorconceptualshiftbroughtaboutbyStenhousetothefieldofsyllabusdesign?【答案】Intraditionallanguageteaching,syllabusdesignissues(whatstudentslearn)andmethodology(howtheylearn),weredecidedwithreferencetotheclassroomratherthanwithreferencetoleamers,realcommunicativeneedsinactualsituationsintheworldoutside;However,withtheemergenceofacommunicative,skills-basedapproach("Wewantlearnerstobeabletogiveaninformaloralpresentationonasubjectoftheirchoice"),arigidseparationbecamedifficulttosustainbecause,ifourmethodofachievingthetargetperformanceistorehearsethatperformanceinclass,thentheroutebecomesthedestination.Thisreconceptualizationchangedthewaythatcoursedesignersandmaterialswritersgoabouttheirjobs.2Listthreecharacteristicsofa“high-structure"classroom,andthreecharacteristicsofa“l(fā)ow-structure”classroom.【答案】“high?structure“classrooms:Theteacherisverymuchincontroloftheinstructionalprocess.Learnershaverelativelylittlepowerorcontrolovereitherthecontentorprocessoflearning.Notallinstructionaldecisionmakingarelocatedonacontinuum“l(fā)ow?structure“classrooms:NumerousoptionsagreatdealofautonomyAllinstructionaldecisionmakingcanbelocatedonacontinuum3Whatistheessentialdifferencebetweena“reproductive”anda*tcreative,,learningtask?【答案】Inreproductivetasks,learnersreproducelanguagemodelsprovidedbytheteacher,thetextbookortheCD.Thesetasksaredesignedtogivelearnersmasteryofform,meaningandfunction,andprovideabasisforcreativetasks.Increativetasks,learnersarerecombiningfamiliarelementsinnovelwaystoproduceutterancesthathaveneverbeenproducedbeforebythatparticularindividual(forthatindividual,theyarethereforeunique.)4Whyisitdesirabletointroducelearnerstoauthenticdata?Listtensourcesor,potentialsources,ofauthenticdatainyourcurrentteachingsituation.【答案】Authenticdataprovidelearnerswithopportunitiestoexperiencelanguageasitisusedbeyondtheclassroom.Sources:TVandradiobroadcasts,conversations,discussionsandmeetingsofallkinds,talks,andannouncements,magazines,stories,printedmaterialandinstructions,hotelbrochuresandairportnotices,bankinstructions,andawiderangeofwrittenmessages.5Whatmedia,inadditiontocommercialtexts,areyouusing/doyouhavethepotentialtouseinyourcurrentteachingsituation?【答案】Self-studyworkbooks,cassettetapes,andvideotapedmaterials,theInternet6Identifythreewaysinwhichlearningstrategiescouldbeintegratedintoyourcurrentteachingsituation.【答案】TwoparticularlyappropriatelearningstrategiesfbrspeakingactivitiesareSubstitute/ParaphraseandUseGraphicOrganizers.If,whilemakinganoralpresentationinthetargetlanguage,astudentsuddenlycannotrememberaword,he/shecansubstituteanotherwordthatissimilarorparaphrasetheconcept.Whenstudentsarepreparingoralpresentations,theycanorganizetheirideasmoreeffectivelybyusinggraphicorganizerssuchaslists,charts,andsemanticmaps.ThestrategiesSubstitute/ParaphraseandUseGraphicOrganizersareequallyrelevanttospeakingandtowritingactivities.AnotherstrategythatstudentscanusewhenworkingonawritingassignmentisMonitor.Afterwritingpartofanessay,fbrexample,thestudentcanlookbackoveritandconsiderwhetherheismakingsenseornot.Hecanalsoaskanotherstudenttolookitover.UseBackgroundKnowledgeandMakeInferencesareequallyusefulforreadingandlistening.Whenpreparingtolistentoalecture,fbrexample,astudentwillunderstanditbetterifsheactivatesherbackgroundknowledge,i.e.thinksaboutwhatshealreadyknowsaboutthetopic.7Identifythreeimpedimentstogroupworkinyourteachingsituation,andbrainstormsolutionstothese.【答案】InherentlyconservativeTransmissionideologyInleq?retative,constructivistapproachEncouragestudentstoexpresstheirownopinions,ideas,andfeelings,guidedbytheteacherandlearnhowtosolvelanguageproblemsinasystematicwayandtodecidewhatlanguagetouseinthedifferentsituationsthattheirteacherspresentintheclassroom.Roleplaysandsimulationscanalsohelptomakethetask-basedclassroomalivelyandrichlanguageenvironmentforlearnersofallabilities.8Listanddiscussthreewaysinwhichyourstudentscanactivatetheirlanguageskillsoutofclass.【答案】TakingpartinconversationexchangeswithforeignerswhowanttopracticetheirChinese(studentsarepairedwithforeigners,andarrange,attheirownconvenience,tospendfortyminutesaweekinconversation,twentyminutesinEnglishandtwentyminutesinChinese);Projectsandsurveys,(inwhichtheycollectinformationinEnglish,andbringitbacktoasubsequentclass);Doinglanguageimprovementprojectsintheindependentlearningcenter(intheseprojectstheyidentifyanaspectoftheirEnglishtheywanttoimprove,theyformulatealearningobjective,andwriteupalearningcontract,whichtheycarryoutindependently).9Collectsamplesofauthentictextsandusethemasthebasisfordesigningtasksfbrlow-levellearners.Ifpossible,introducethetasksintheclassroom,andevaluatetheirstrengthsandweaknesses.【答案】(1)Example:HowdoIgettoKensingtonRoad?WellyougodownFullartonRoad...A:...what,downOldBelair,andaround...?B:Yeah.Andthenyougostraight...A:...pastthehospital?B:Yeah,keepgoingstraight,pasttheracecoursetotheroundabout.Youknowthebigroundabout?A:Yeah.B:AndKensingtonRoad'sofftotheright.A:What,offtheroundabout?B:Yeah.A:Right!(2)Askways.Here,thespeakershaveto“negotiate“atcertainpointstoensuremutualunderstanding.Itemphasizescommunicationbutneglectsgrammarstudy.QUESTIONSANDTASKS1Whyistheconceptofgrammaticalityproblematic?【答案】Thereareimportantlimitationsontheabilityof“experts“toprovidereliablejudgments.Few,ifany,linguistsorteachershaveirrefutableintuitionsaboutgrammaticality,eventhoughmanyoftheirjudgmentsarereliable.Bothcompetenceandperformancelimitationsaffectexpertjudgmentsofgrammaticality,andtheselimitationscanlikewiseaffectjudgmentsofacceptability.2Dothegrammaticalityjudgmenttestonpage3ofthesetreading.Howdoyourresultscomparewiththosereportedinthechapter?【答案】Comparedwiththeresultsreportedinthechapter:Inatestofspontaneoususage,asalargemajorityofthesubjectsused(a).However,inalatertest,whenaskedwhichformtheyused,asmostreportedusing(b).Inasubsequenttest,theinformantswereaskedtojudgethecorrectnessoftheprobes.Onlyasmallminorityconsidered(a)tobecorrect.3Whataretheessentialcharacteristicsofanorganicapproachtosecondlanguageacquisition?Inwhatwaysdoesanorganicapproachdifferfromalinearapproach?Whatarethepracticalimplicationsfbrteachinganorganicapproach?【答案】Organicapproachseessecondlanguageacquisitionmorelikegrowingagardenthanbuildingawall.Fromsuchaperspective,learnersdonotlearnonethingperfectly,oneitematatime,butnumerousthingssimultaneously(andimperfectly).Thelinguisticflowersdonotallappearatthesametime,nordotheyallgrowatthesamerate.Someevenappeartowilt,foratime,beforerenewingtheirgrowth.Therateofgrowthisdeterminedbyacomplexinterplayoffactorsrelatedtospeechprocessingconstraints,pedagogicalinterventions,acquisitionalprocesses,andtheinfluenceofthediscoursalenvironmentinwhichtheitemsoccur.Astrictlylinearapproachtolanguagelearningisbasedonthepremisethatlearnersacquireonegrammaticalitematatime,andthattheyshoulddemonstratetheirmasteryofonethingbeforemovingontothenext.Teachingimplications:Teachinglanguageasasetofchoices;Providingopportunitiesforlearnerstoexploregrammaticalanddiscoursalrelationshipsinauthenticdata;(3)Teachinglanguageinwaysthatmakeform/functionrelationshipstransparent;④Encouraginglearnerstobecomeactiveexplorersoflanguage;⑤Encouraginglearnerstoexplorerelationshipsbetweengrammaranddiscourse4Identifythreeexamplesofreferentialcohesion,threeoflexicalcohesion,andthreeconjunctionsinthefollowingpassage.Useyouranalysistodevelopalessonforteachingtheseitems.[Acommoncriticismofthesimplealternative-responsetypeitemisthatapupilmaybeabletorecognizeafalsestatementasincorrectbutstillnotknowwhatiscorrect.Forexample,whenpupilsanswerthefollowingitemasfalse,itdoesnotindicatethattheyknowwhatnegativelychargedparticlesofelectricityarecalled.Allittellsusisthattheyknowtheyarenotcalledneutrons.T/FNegativelychargedparticlesofelectricityarecalledneutrons.Thisisarathercrudemeasureofknowledge,becausethereisaninestimablenumberofthingsthatnegativelychargedparticlesofelectricityarenotcalled.Toovercomesuchdifficulties,someteachersprefertohavethepupilschangeallfalsestatementstotrue.Whenthisisdone,thepartofthestatementitispermissibletochangeshouldbeindicated.However,unlessthekeywordstobechangedareindicatedinthecorrection-typetrue-falseitem,pupilsareliabletorewritetheentirestatement.Inadditiontotheincreaseinscoringdifficulty,thisfrequentlyleadstotruestatementswhichdeviateconsiderablyfromtheoriginalintentoftheitem.]Gronland1981:165【答案】Referentialcohesion:apupils;it;thisIntheabovetextthewordsapupils,itandthisallrefertoasingleindividualwhoseidentityisestablishedintheopeningsentence.Thesubsequentitemscanonlybeinterpretedwithreferencetotheinitialp