自考《現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)》復(fù)習(xí)講義.doc

自考現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)復(fù)習(xí)講義一、常考題型1.填空2.單項(xiàng)選擇3.判斷正誤4.解釋詞語(yǔ)并舉例說(shuō)明對(duì)名詞解釋并舉一兩個(gè)例子進(jìn)行說(shuō)明5.回答問(wèn)題做題要求：用英文進(jìn)行答題。二、各章節(jié)學(xué)習(xí)要點(diǎn)Chapter 1 Introduction （緒論）1.What is linguistics?1.1 Definition （語(yǔ)言學(xué)的定義） P.1Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g., English, Chinese, Arabic, and Latin, but in language in general.1.2 The Scope of linguistics （語(yǔ)言學(xué)的研究范疇） P.24 The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics(普通語(yǔ)言學(xué)).This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to those branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.Main branches of linguistics 語(yǔ)言學(xué)的主要分支：1）phonetics（語(yǔ)音學(xué)） 2)phonology （音系學(xué)） 3)morphology （形態(tài)學(xué)） 4)syntax （句法學(xué)） 5)semantics （語(yǔ)義學(xué)） 6)pragmatics （語(yǔ)用學(xué)） The study of all these aspects of language forms the core of linguistics.Findings in linguistic studies can often be applie3d to the solution of such practical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguistics.Macrolinguistics 宏觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)：1) Psycholingusitcs (心理語(yǔ)言學(xué))；2) Sociolinguistics (社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué))；3) Anthropological linguistics (人類語(yǔ)言學(xué))；4) Computational linguistics (計(jì)算語(yǔ)言學(xué))1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics P.47 1.3.1 Prescriptive vs. descriptive （規(guī)定性和描述性）Examples:Dont say X.People dont say X.Modern linguistics, i.e., linguistic study carried out in this century is mostly descriptive.1.3.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic （共時(shí)性和歷時(shí)性）In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study.1.3.3 Speech and writing （口頭語(yǔ)和書面語(yǔ)）Speech and writing are the two major media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.1.3.4 Langue and parole （語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ)）The distinction between langue and parole was made by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure in the early 20th century.1.3.5 Competence and performance （語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用）Similar to Saussures distinction between langue and parole is the distinction between competence and performance, which was proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s.While Saussures distinction and Chomskys are very similar, they differ at least in that Saussure took a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.2. What is language?2.1 Definitions of language p.9Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(語(yǔ)言是人類在交際中使用的一套任意的聲音符號(hào)系統(tǒng)。)Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2.2 Design features p.1114 Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationA framework was proposed by the American linguist Charles Hockett. He specified twelve design features, five of which will be discussed here.1) Arbitrariness （任意性）Language is arbitrary. This means that there is no logical relationship between meanings and sounds. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.2) Productivity (創(chuàng)造性)Productivity is unique to human language.3) Duality (雙重性)Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. At the lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which is meaningless.4) Displacement （移位性）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in far-away places. In contrast, no animal communication possess this feature.5) Cultural transmission (文化傳遞性)While human capacity of language has a genetic basis, i.e., we were all born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.Chapter 2 Phonology (音系學(xué))1. The phonic medium of language （語(yǔ)言的聲音媒介） p.1516 Speech and writing are the two media or substances used by natural languages as vehicles for communication. Of the two media of language, speech is more basic than writing. For linguists, the study of sounds is of greater importance than that of writing; their dada for investigation and analysis are mostly drawn from authentic, everyday speech.2.Phonetics (語(yǔ)音學(xué)) 2.1 What is phonetics? p.1617 Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.articulatory phonetics (發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué))；auditory phonetics (聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué))；acoustic phonetics (聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)) Of the three branches of phonetics, the longest established, and until recently the most highly developed, is articulatory phonetics.2.2 Organs of speech (發(fā)音器官) p.1722 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: the pharyngeal cavity (咽腔)the throat, the oral cavity(口腔)the mouth, and the nasal cavity(鼻腔)the nose. (人類的發(fā)聲器官都被包括在三個(gè)重要的地方或腔道里；咽腔即咽喉；口腔即嘴；和鼻腔即鼻子。)2.3 Orthographic representation of speech soundsbroad and narrow transcriptions (語(yǔ)音的正字標(biāo)音法寬式標(biāo)音法和嚴(yán)式標(biāo)音法)Two ways to transcribe speech sounds are now available. One is the transcription with letter-symbols only and the other is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics(附加符號(hào)). The former is called broad transcription. This is the transcription normally used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks. The latter is called narrow transcription. This is really the transcription required and used by the phoneticians in their study of speech sounds. With the help of the diacritics they can faithfully represent as much of the fine details as it is necessary for their purpose.Chapter 3 Morphology (形態(tài)學(xué))1.Definition (形態(tài)學(xué)的定義)Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Morphology is divided into two sub-branches: inflectional morphology (屈折形態(tài)學(xué))and lexical or derivational morphology（詞匯或派生詞匯學(xué)）. The former studies the inflections and the latter the study of word-formation.2.Morpheme (詞素) p.492.1 Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language （詞素：語(yǔ)言最小的意義單位）Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology. The meaning morphemes convey may be of two kinds: lexical meaning and grammatical meaning(詞匯意義和語(yǔ)法意義). The morphemes such as “man”, “-ly”, “teach”, “-er”, “dark”, “-en” in “manly”, “teacher”, “darken” convey a lexical meaning, while the morphemes such as “-es”, “-ed”, “-ing” in “teaches”, “played”, “raining” convey a grammatical meaning.鏈接：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g. boys-boy+-s indicates pluralitychecking-check+-ingdisappointment-dis-+appoint+-ment2.2 Types of morphemes p.50Morphemes are classified into free morphemes and bound morphemes.free morpheme (自由詞素) root (詞根)morpheme bound morpheme（粘著詞素） inflectional affix(屈折詞綴) prefix（前綴） affix (詞綴) derivational affix suffix（后綴)）Free morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.Take help, quick, able, warm for example, they can be used freely all by themselves, at the same time, they can also be used in combination with other morphemes as in helper, quicken, disable, warm-hearted.Bound morphemes are morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example, the root “geo-” bears the meaning of “the earth”; when it combines with another root “-ology”, meaning “a branch of learning”, we get the word “geology”, which means “the study of the earths structure.”Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational.Inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case. The inflectional affixes in English include:-(e)s, indicating plurality of nouns-(e)s, indicating third person singular, present tense-(e)d, indicating past tense for all three persons-ing, indicating progressive aspect-er, indicating comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs-est, indicating superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs-s, indicating the possessive case of nounsDerivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. This is a very common way to create new words in English. Such a way of word-formation is called derivation (派生法) and the new word formed by derivation is called a derivative(派生詞) . The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem(詞干). A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself. e.g.tolerate root “toler-”+affix “-ate”quick free morpheme “quick” + affix “-ly”carelessness free morpheme “care” + affix “-less” + derivative “careless” + affix “-ness”According to the its position in the new word, affixes are divided into two kinds: prefixes(前綴) and suffixes (后綴). (p.53)Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. Exceptions are the prefixes “be-” and “en(m)-” Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs, e.g. little- belittle, large-enlarge, rich-enrich, body-embody.Suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. (p.54)2.2.3 Morphological rules p.54In using the morphological rules, we must guard against overgeneralization. Different words may require different affixes to create the same change.A knowledge of the derivational affixes and the morphological rules is very helpful in our study of English especially for enlarging our vocabulary, but such a knowledge is not to be overused.3.Compound